Each pupil may be given a paper on which he writes the name of his picture and answers in statement form the questions concerning it. If a school has a lantern, the exercise may be managed in the following manner: the pupils may be given cards as in the exercise described above and may be asked to take down on paper the name of the feature shown and the questions concerning it. The next day the pictures may be thrown on the screen and each pupil asked to state and answer the questions concerning his picture.

Some teachers are fortunate enough to have large pictures which are furnished by the school. If such is the case, an exercise may be given in which a pupil may stand up before the class and holding his picture up so that all may see it well, point out and describe the prominent features shown there. Sometimes the plan may be varied by letting the pupil merely point to the features and then call on different members of the class to answer whatever question he chooses to ask concerning them. Still another exercise is to put up a picture and let the whole class write out what they consider a good list of questions concerning it. A few minutes may be taken for having them. read and discussed.

Another exercise which pupils like, but which is adapted only for small classes is this: numbered pictures, each representing some very conspicuous feature such as a meandering stream, crevasse, moraine, artesian well, snow field, drumlin, tornado cloud, waterspout and the like, may be placed about the room. Before starting the exercise, the class may be given papers and asked to number them as for a spelling lesson. Then they may pass to the pictures and write opposite the proper number on their paper the name of the feature shown in each picture.

Pictures should figure conspicuously in the geography work of the lower grades. If a class has been studying lakes, every pupil in it may be given a picture. The pictures should show rowing, canoeing and fishing scenes, and freight and passenger steamers. After studying the picture a minute or two, each pupil may describe his. After all have had a turn, they may draw conclusions concerning the uses of lakes. This exercise may be used as early as the third grade.

A lesson on the different industries and some allied products may be worked out admirably in a similar manner. All teachers know that children often confuse products and industries. If an industry in a certain locality is called for, a child will give fruit when he should give fruit raising. Drills on the differences between products and industries may be given by means of cards or other pictures. The subjects shown in them may reveal a list after this order: a cluster of oranges, people picking fruit, a cotton boll, people at work in a cotton field, men working in the woods, piles of ore and so on. Each pupil may then tell whether his picture represents simply a product or an industry. If he says the former, the teacher may ask of what industry it is a product. Classes look upon such an exercise as a game, but teachers know from experience that a great deal is unconsciously learned.

After studying the climate and surface of any given region a class may be allowed to work out the industries from pictures. Before the teacher gets ready for the industrial lesson she should put up industrial pictures representing the locality under discussion. At odd minutes the children may list the industries and subdivide them. If they are easily confused on the distinction between industries and products, it is well to have a separate list of products made.

Pictures are invaluable in studying scenic resorts, for children have traveled little and can form no idea of natural scenery save through the medium of pictures. The late spring is the time when plans are laid for vacation trips. This season, therefore, is an excellent one for studying scenic resorts with classes and at the same time for working in a review. The plan will succeed only in the upper grades and in schools equipped with a lantern. Several weeks before the close of school the teacher may talk a bit with her pupils about vacation trips, asking where they would like to go if they could go anywhere they chose. After interest is aroused, she may suggest that each pupil in the class carefully plan a trip and present his plans, when finished, to the class by means of an illustrated talk.

The first step toward preparing such a lesson is for each pupil to hand to the teacher a slip of paper on which he has stated in brief form what he purposes to do. If several pupils select the same trip, some of them should be asked to choose others or, if possible, one may plan the main trip while others may work on side trips. For instance, some pupil may wish to go from Chicago to Los Angeles via the Sante Fe Railroad while another may describe a side trip to the Grand Canyon. After the trips are agreed upon, the teacher should post a list of available books giving information on them. Each pupil should also be provided with pictures which may be obtained from magazines, railroad folders, old geographies, picture companies and post cards. In planning his talk, he should consult folders for his route, connections and time required for the trip. He should also ascertain the cost of this trip from his local agent. When a pupil is ready to give his talk, he should notify his teacher and together they should decide upon a class hour for the presentation of the material.

Before the work is presented the pupil or pupils should hand to the teacher a bibliography of references and an outline of the talk. The English teacher is often glad to coöperate in this part of the work. The pupil should also hand in a list of pictures he intends to use. A responsible pupil may take charge of this list, and when the pictures are returned, check up the list. This arrangement will prevent the loss of pictures and will save the teacher trouble.

When the lesson is given, a map should first be thrown upon the screen. Then the pupil may point out on it the route he intends to take, the important cities he will pass through, and the roads over which he will travel. After this step, pictures of points of interest in the cities he intends to visit and of

natural scenery, may be shown and discussed. Sometimes causes for such phenomena as Yellowstone Park, Crater Lake, Natural Bridge, Niagara Falls and the Grand Canyon may be explained. After the main route has been described, the side trips may be taken up by the same pupil or other pupils.

At the close of a talk the class should feel free to criticise the discussion as to clearness, vividness and interest or the lack of these qualities. This friendly criticism will lead to improvement in later talks.

I know from experience that classes enjoy lessons of the above nature; and the work of preparing them calls for individual effort and acquaints the pupil with books of travel, while the presentation of them trains a class in talking before an audience, helps to fix locations and inspires all with a desire to travel.

Even though a detailed study of pictures is not desired, any pictures that are used by a teacher should be made the subject of some study. When those in magazines or books are used, the book should be placed on the teacher's desk and questions or comments on the pictures should either be retained on the board or on a slip of paper kept with the book.

When pictures are placed on the wall or in the blackboard tray it is well to leave them there for several days so that the scenes or objects may become fixed in the child's mind. They may often be advantageously used a second time. Naturally in studying such cities as Milan and Venice the teacher shows pictures of the cathedrals, and the pupil soon associates cathedrals with the names of these cities; but he does not gain the broad impression that beautiful churches are found all through Europe. The teacher may succeed in giving this impression if, after studying many cities such as Cologne, London, Paris, Venice, Milan, Constantinople, and Rome, she displays all together pictures of cathedrals found in these various cities.

In order that the child may do something more than merely look at pictures on the wall, slips on which points of interest concerning the pictures are written, should be pinned under them. If one has a series of pictures illustrating a given industry, they should be arranged according to the consecutive steps taken in it. The pupil should be directed to look at them in this order. In this way, he gets a clear image of the industry in as far as pictures can give one.

Although this may be a slight digression from the subject, I should like to suggest a convenient method for putting up pictures for study. A pupil can get no value from them unless he can inspect them closely. If they are put on a wall space, the upper ones are always too high for a child to see them well. If pictures from magazines are used, they are too limp to stand in a blackboard tray. Both of these difficulties may be overcome by arranging the pictures thus: With one or two patent clasps they may be fastened to white bristol board sheets which are all the same size and large enough for a

good sized picture. the smallest child.

These can be stood up in a tray and are within reach of Furthermore they can be handled without any detriment to the picture. Pupils may aid the teacher in taking off the clasps or putting them on and in piling up the board and pictures.

Pictures mounted in this way are far more easily taken care of than permanently mounted ones which are bulky and hard to pack, because they vary so much in size. They also admit of a more systematic arrangement than permanently mounted ones. They may be kept filed in large envelopes, which may be obtained from a photograph gallery. If the nature of the contents is indicated on the outside, a set of pictures for a lesson may be gathered quickly. For instance, if a teacher is working on the Rockies she may go to the envelope labeled Western Mountains. If she wants material on lumbering, she can go to the one labeled American Industries. Of course every teacher will have her own means for filing. Postal cards may be arranged in packets according to contents and fastened with a rubber band.

The plans for picture study which I have outlined, may sound as though a large number of pictures were needed. Naturally every teacher knows that the more pictures a teacher has, the better equipped she is, but no teacher need be discouraged if, at the start, she has only a few pictures. These studied by pupils will prove of more value than many looked at heedlessly. If a teacher asks her friends to send her post cards showing geographical subjects instead of the ones often sent, and if she is on the alert for pictures in magazines and papers and secures illustrated railroad folders which she sees advertised, she will soon accumulate a valuable collection.

PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY AND READING

By Philip Emerson

Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass.

NE of the best opportunities for practical geography teaching open to all primary teachers is afforded by the frequent lessons of a geographical nature found in nearly every series of school readers. It is theoretically true that primary geography should be based very largely on good study of local geography, with many field lessons. In practice, classes are too large and teachers poorly prepared to do this. But schools and teachers have from time immemorial studied books effectively: they are planned for just this. And the most essential features of any primary curriculum is reading. It occupies the most time on the daily program. Whatever opportunity it offers for the study of geography should be appreciated and full advantage taken thereof.

To make the stories of child life in various lands geographically effective the causal reasons for customs should be noted in simple form and the comparison of each new field of life with those traversed in previous lessons

should call attention to contrasts in customs between different climes and likeness in ways of living where conditions are similar, so that a sense of the larger principles of geography as to the effect of environment on life may be established, a basis for the later formal statement of such principles. This end will be inevitably secured under a teacher who understands modern geography herself, and the fundamental truths of life relations are so simple that any teacher who wishes may easily take sufficient thought to do efficient service to this end. Thought will naturally turn to the ways of home life and their explanation also as contrasts with life described in the readers awakens thought.

A lesson in reading commences with a preparatory talk whereby the teacher guides the class to gain a basis for appreciating the content of the selection as well as new words that are introduced. Any series of readers will contain stories of Eskimo life, clearly chosen because of a sense of the geographical values of the strong controls exercised on life by Arctic conditions and the appeal their novelty makes upon the children. Pictures in the book supplemented by others chosen by the teacher may present typical scenes showing the winter snow and ice, the lack of trees or bushes even when snows have melted in summer. The question as to how people can live there will bring up the thought of houses and clothing and fire, for warmth and food. It is not necessary or possible that the little folks should think out fairly and correctly many of the results of climate and consequent resources on the location and manner of human life in the Arctic. Erroneous conclusions may be recorded for the time being. Then turn to the text to find whether life there is what the children think it must be. After reading, compare fact and conjecture, and it will be clear usually where the children went astray in their thought. The result will be preparation for the reading lessons that insures interest and a true basis for geographical study continued with textbooks in later years.

With Arctic life the lessons will cover somewhat this range. The snow igloo of winter, using the material at hand and meeting the severest cold quickly; the skin tent of summer upon a bone framework, again using the materials available in the absence of woodlands. The homes along the ocean shores in winter, since the long cold drives away all life except that which, like the polar bear and Eskimo, can prey upon the seal and other sea animals. The wandering life of summer, following the wild reindeer, beside the streams where fish are abundant, or where berries and birds give variety to food. Clothing made from skins of mammals and birds, with bone needles and sinew thread, warm and soft with fur and feathers. Fire for warmth and cooking, from seal oil, carefully treasured and sparingly used. Life in general one for food and life. The story might cover more relations and ngle lesson or group of lessons will not traverse all this sugut in part or whole it will lead the children to feel the values