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about one-third of one Russian army division escaped. The German pursuit was greatly hampered. Provision and ammunition trains stuck fast, and supplies had to be carried on sledges in the teeth of a furious snowstorm. The rapid advance of spring in this area, with the general melting of recent heavy snows, made immense stretches of lowland impassable-shallow seas, with treacherous bogs beneath. At the end of March a whole German army corps, which had crossed the thin and melting ice of one of the East Prussian lakes, found a return impossible, and suffered heavy losses (Petrograd despatch).

The desperate fighting in the Carpathians continued through March without substantial gains by, either side. The Russians then began a great forward movement, under terrible weather conditions, the men having to march and to draw their guns through waist-deep snows. This advance distinctly slackened after three weeks of obvious success, but whether this slackening was due to the spring rains and floods and prohibitory weather and transport conditions, or to the activity of the Austrian and German armies, is not clear. Petrograd despatches assert that the Russians gained all that they expected to before the spring thaws set in. Toward the end of April, fine spring weather without the hampering effects of cold, snow, ice, and short rations, stimulated military activity in this region. If the weather had not interfered, said a Russian officer, his troops would have advanced far into Hungary early in the winter. The complete story of the winter campaign in the Carpathians can probably never be written. The deep snows buried hundreds of dead, whose bodies were revealed whenever a thaw set in. The melting snows froze at night, and the early morning fighting began over huge fields of ice. The deep snows had an important effect in increasing the mortality. The only way to advance was on beaten paths, in Indian file, which formation obviously involves heavy losses, as the men can be picked off one Had the Russians succeeded in gaining the southern slopes of the Carpathians late in the winter, the earlier spring in that region would have favored their rapid advance into Hungary.

The weather played an important part in the siege of Peremysl. The fortress was kept in touch with the outside world by means of aeroplanes, which brought despatches and food. When the Austrians were holding back the besieging armies in September the roads became practically impassable. Therefore the wounded from the battle of the San had to be left in Peremysl instead of being sent south, as was the plan. This extra number of persons hastened the exhaustion of the food supplies. Further, after the "mildest December known in years," a very cold January and February snowed up the Austrian troops and left Peremysl to its doom. The Russian retreat from Bukowina, about mid-February, was necessitated by the danger of the troops being cut off by floods. Similarly, the plan of a fresh Austrian invasion of Serbia, early in February, was abandoned on account of the spring floods.

In the western war zone, during the capture of Les Eparges by the French early in April, the heavy rains and deep mud made artillery and rifles

useless, and bayonets were used in storming the trenches. The English advance to Neuve Chapelle was followed by a period of relative inactivity, because of the impassable condition of the roads, which prohibited artillery The advance of spring, the drying of the ground by warm winds and sunshine, and the more buoyant spirits of the troops, combined to induce increased military activity, but the melting of the snows caused floods in many of the rivers, especially in Alsace.

manoeuvres.

In the late winter the snow was 8-10 feet deep on the upper ranges of the Vosges, and heavy snowstorms frequently brought military operations to a standstill. Snow forts were built, and the batteries were so effectively hidden in snow-banks as to be invisible even from aeroplanes. In the early spring thaws the mountain streams became raging torrents and operations were suspended.

The small number of Zeppelin raids during the winter, in spite of several calm spells, suggested the probability that the Germans were waiting for more settled weather before making more serious ventures. It was, therefore, not surprising to note the greatly increased activity in aerial warfare as spring came on (early April). Since then almost daily air raids of one sort or another, have occurred. The record of the flying corps in Flanders is remarkable. From August to early February, only six days in the air were missed. Significant, also, is the fact that every important German air raid during the winter occurred at the time of a fog, apparently accurately forecasted by the German meteorological war service.

In the Dardanelles naval operations were begun in fine weather, as was to be expected; but later on storms frequently interfered with the Allies' naval attacks, and with their seaplane reconnaissances, giving the Turks opportunity to repair damage, and to mount fresh guns. The storms which have caused the trouble belong to a type most common in spring, crossing central Italy and the Adriatic and moving thence east or northeast. The delay in the Dardanelles is of far less consequence since the breaking up of the ice at Archangel. With that northern port open again, war munitions and other supplies may be shipped to Russia, and Russian wheat can find an outlet.

A new and curious emphasis upon the importance of weather controls in modern warfare comes in the report that the wind which, on one occasion, had been carrying the deadly asphyxiating gases used by the Germans towards the Allies' trenches, suddenly changed, blowing these same gases back to the German lines, and forcing the men to flee for their lives. Another interesting item is found in the opinion of an English copper expert that, owing to the mud and water in which so much fighting has taken place, probably not 5 per cent of the cartridges used have been recovered for remelting. Mud and water may thus play a part in hastening the end of the war. The use of white woolen caps, white uniforms, and white sheets put over the uniforms, in order to make the troops less conspicuous against the snow, is also worthy of note. For the same reason some of the horses even have been painted white.

Cambridge, Mass., May 8, 1915.

T

SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY

By F. E. Williams

University of Wisconsin, Madison

HE following list is incomplete. An effort was made to secure information from all of the larger universities and many of the smaller ones. In some instances our inquiries brought no replies and in others only "preliminary announcements" had been issued; these do not, as a rule, give details regarding courses. Many normal schools also give summer courses in geography.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

Commerce of the Pacific, Mr. Wright.

Field Physiography, Saturday excursions, Associate Professor Holway.
Physiography of California, Associate Professor Holway.
Physical Geography in the High School, Mr. Wright.

UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

Teachers' Course in Geography, Miss Lanier.

Economic and Commercial Geography, First Term, Miss Lanier; Second Term, Dr. Jones.

Elementary Field Course, Four weeks in southwestern Wisconsin, commencing June 21, Dr. Jones.

Field Course; The Environs of Chicago, Second Term, Dr. Jones.
The Elements of Meteorology, Mr. Reed.

Geography of Europe, Associate Professor Goode.

The Climate of North America, Mr. Reed.

Influence of Geography on American History, Professor Barrows and Miss Lanier.

Economic Geography of the United States, Associate Professor Goode.
Conservation of Natural Resources, Professor Barrows.

Geographic Influences in the History of the Western States, Professor

Barrows.

Field Geography, Parts of Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and California, September 3rd to October 2, Associate Professor Goode.

The School of Education of Chicago University offers courses in: Geography in the Primary Grades, Associate Professor Baber. Geography in the Grammar Grades, Associate Professor Baber. Geography in the High School, Professor Salisbury and Associate Professor Baber.

UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER

Principles of Earth Science, Associate Professor McCourt.
Economic Geography, Associate Professor McCourt.

Teachers' Course in Geography, Associate Professor McCourt.

General Principles of Anthropo-Geography, Miss Semple.

Geography of the Mediterranean Basin, Miss Semple.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y.

Physical Geography and its Economic Aspects, Professor McFarlane and Miss Hatch.

Physiography of the Eastern United States, Professor D. W. Johnson.
· Physical Geography and Physiography of the Western United States,
Field Work in Western part of the United States, Professor D. W. Johnson.
Commercial Geography, Professor McFarlane and Miss Hatch.
The Teachers' College of Columbia University offers courses in:
The Teaching of Geography in the Lower Grades, Miss Kirchwey.
The Teaching of Geography in the Upper Grades, Miss Kirchwey.
The Teaching of Regional Geography in the Junior High School, Miss
Kirchwey.

General Geography for Elementary Schools, Miss Kirchwey.
Human Geography in Elementary Schools, Professor Dodge.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.

Round Table Conferences in Geography and Geology, Professor Carney.
Physical Geography, Assistant Professor von Engeln.

Industrial Geography, Professor Carney.

Geography of North America, Assistant Professor von Engeln.

Teachers' Course in Geography, Professor Carney.

Geography and Geology, Field Course, Assistant Professor von Engeln.

DENISON UNIVERSITY, GRANVILLE, OHIO

Geography for Grammar Grades, North America, Miss Henderson.
Geography for Primary Grades, Miss Henderson.

Nature Study in the Grades, Miss Henderson.

GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVille, Tenn.

Principles of Geography, Mr. Ward and Miss Dopp.

Commercial Geography, Mr. Ward.

Commercial and Industrial Geography of Latin-America, Mr. Osuna.

Geography of North America, Mr. Ward.

Influence of Geography on American History, Miss Dopp.

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE

Physiography, Professor Haworth.

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR

Teachers' Course in Physiography, Assistant Professor Scott.

THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS

General Geography, Mr. Posey.

Physiography, Mr. Posey.

Field Course in Geography. Three separate tours in the western part

of the United States, Mr. Lehnerts.

THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA

Teachers' Geography, Mr. Parkins.

Fundamentals of Physical and Human Geography, Mr. Parkins.
Geographic Literature, A reading course, Mr. Parkins.

UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN

Physical Geography, Miss Nelson.

Industrial Geography, Miss Nelson.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA, GRAND FORKS

The summer courses in Geology and Physiography are given at Devil's Lake.

Physiography, Assistant Professor Simpson.

Field Geology and Physiography, Assistant Professor Simpson.

OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS

Physiography, Professor Thompson.

Political Geography, Professor Thompson.

Methods in Geography, Professor Martzolff.

SUMMER SCHOOL OF THE SOUTH, KNOXVILLE, TENN.

Elementary Geography, Professor Merrill.

Industrial Geography, Professor Merrill.

Physical Geography, Professor Merrill.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE

Physical Geography, Miss Kelley.

Industrial Geography, Professor Hughes.

Aims and Methods in Geography, Miss Kelley.

Review of Grammar School Geography, Professor Hughes.
Course in Constructive Illustration, Professor Hughes.

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE

Industrial and Commercial Geography, Professor Gregory.
Physical and Regional Geography, Professor Gregory.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON

Commercial and Industrial Geography, Associate Professor Whitbeck.
Physical and Applied Geography, Associate Professor Whitbeck.

Geography of Europe, Mr. Williams.

Influence of Geography on American History, Mr. Williams.
Advanced Geography, Associate Professor Whitbeck.

Summer Field Course in Physiography and Geology, four weeks in

August beginning after close of summer session, Mr. Williams.

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