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READING FOR STUDENTS

The books listed above are adapted for reading by teachers, and their more mature students, but the pupils may very well be set to looking up (a) certain products and trade routes in the Commercial Geographies of Adams, Brigham, Gannett, Redway, Robinson, Smith, Lyde, Morris, Trotter, Gregory, Keller, and Bishop, and others, or (b) specific places, alluded to in the war news, in the Geographical Readers by Carpenter, Chamberlain, Winslow, Rupert, Huntington, King, and others, in Herbertson's Descriptive Geography from Original Sources, Lyde's Geographies of the Various Continents, in such series as Little People Everywhere, Around the World, Peeps at Many Lands, The World and Its People, Boy Traveller, Family Flight, Zig-zag Journeys, Home and World, Highways and Byways, People and Places, Youth's Companion Series, Little Folks from Many Lands, Scenes from Every Land, etc. They may also look up pictures in the back numbers of the National Geographic Magazine, The World's Work, Harper's, Scribner's, and other magazines. Best of all they may now, more profitably than at any time in the history of the world, have their interest stimulated by some bit of war news and then be sent to the school reference shelf or the public library to look up some topics and countries alluded to in the References to Books and Articles in such geographies as the Tarr & McMurry, Dodge, King, Redway and others.

WAR MAPS

The writer has found it profitable to make a flag map in accordance with the following plan: Take a large wall map of the world on Mercator projection. Buy a quantity of tiny flags of foreign countries (40 cents a gross). Pin a flag, say of Germany, Japan or Great Britain, at each place alluded to in the list on pages 172-175. where conquest of colonial territory has taken place, as at Walfish Bay, Kiau-Chau, Togo, etc. The pin holes do no serious damage to the map.

Pin other flags at places where naval battles have occurred, as (a) southwest of Valparaiso in Chile, (b) near the Falkland Islands, (c) at Cocos Island where the 'Emden' was destroyed, and so on. On these latter flags place gummed numbers. Make a legend explaining these numbers, to attach to the map. It might read, for example: "1. German cruisers sink 2 British cruisers; 2. British fleet sinks 4 German cruisers; 3. German cruiser 'Emden' bombards Madras; 4. The 'Emden' sinks a Russian and a French warship at Penang; 5. Australian cruiser sinks the 'Emden'."

Next, connect by threads the flags at Madras, Penang, and Cocos Island you have a rough route of part of the cruise of the 'Emden'. Do the same strings or colored threads between the flags showing where two German ers bombarded French Tahiti in the Society Islands, and where they at the English off the coast of Chile, and later near the Falkland Islands. his thread will be attached one indicating the route of another German

cruiser from Yap in the Caroline Islands to Fanning Island, where a British cable was cut, and St. Felix, where a collier was destroyed. Another thread joining these two will come from San Francisco, where a German cruiser started on her way to join the fleet which fought off the Chilean coast.

As an antidote for all this warfare, put in pins and a thread to show the route of the American Christmas Ship Jason' from New York to Plymouth, England, Marseille, France, Genoa, Italy, and Salonica, Greece.

If flags are not easily obtainable take ordinary pins and use pieces of red paper for British flags, black for German, blue for French, white for Japanese, etc. The plates at the front of Webster's Dictionary show flags, which students might copy, using colored pencils.

School children of all ages from the grades to the high school, normal school, and university can play this geographical war game with pleasure and profit. If they are allowed to do the looking-up of places, the pinning of flags, and the stretching of threads for themselves they will remember the location of Madras, Tahiti, the Falkland Islands, Zanzibar, Plymouth, Samoa, etc., all the rest of their lives. The facts can be stated without prejudice, so that no race antagonism or war spirit need be stirred up by the study of the geography of the war in the colonies.

Of course the same methods apply equally well to a graphic representation of the campaigns in Belgium, France, Poland, East Prussia, Galicia, Servia, and Armenia upon a map of Europe.

GERMANY'S RELATIONSHIPS WITH HER COLONIES, CONTRASTED WITH

ENGLAND AND FRANCE

In these instances of extra-European warfare the geographical factors of the peripheral settlement and the undefended seaport constitute a weakness especially if the German influence is strictly limited to the port, as in many new colonies and most tropical dependencies. French, Japanese or British. ships could capture such German colonies as Samoa, Togo, or Kaiser Wilhelm Land, and perhaps Kamerun, by bombarding the seaports, and then starving out the traders and colonists in the interior, provided there were no German navy at large upon the seas. It would require an army, however, to conquer most of the important British colonies, which have been established longer, contain a larger white population and have in the interior farms and towns which are populous and more nearly self-supporting, as in British South Africa. This is also true in a measure of German East and South-west Africa. The German colonies are also too new to send troops to the defense of the parent country as the British colonies of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and India, and the French colonies of northern Africa, are doing. The colonies and foreign possessions of Germany are all young, so that her present trade with them is relatively slight compared with her trade with the United States, Russia, and other foreign countries. Germany's exports are worth nearly 2,500 million dollars, while her imports exceed 2,600 million dollars annually, but only about 1/55 of this trade, or 92 million dollars, is with the

dependencies of the German Empire. Their total trade in 1912 was 114 million dollars.

The trade of France with her colonies was about 1371⁄2 million dollars in 1912, the exports and imports being about equal in value; but in addition these colonies had a trade of over 171 million dollars with other countries. The total exports and imports of France in 1913 were valued at nearly 3077 million dollars. This is less than half as much as the total trade of Great Britain, however, which was worth almost 7021 million dollars in the same year, but Great Britain's trade with India, and with her dominions, colonies, protectorates, and dependencies constituting the British Empire, aggregated some 2000 million dollars. This great colonial trade in the long-established, far-flung British Empire, in contrast with the little trade of the thirty-yearold colonies of Germany, with less than one-seventeenth of this amount, suggests the stakes for which the European countries are playing on the high seas and in the antipodes. It emphasizes the importance of the war in the colonies.

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THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS HE eleventh annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers was held in Chicago on December 29 and 30, 1914. The President, Prof. A. P. Brigham of Colgate University, gave an address on "Problems of Geographic Influence." Prof. N. M. Fenneman of the University of Cincinnati conducted a Round Table on "The Delineation of Physiographic Provinces in the United States." Prof. R. D. Salisbury gave an evening lecture on Porto Rico. Thirty-seven papers were offered, 6 dealing with Physiography, 2 with Climatology, 1 with Oceanography, 3 with Regional Geography, 5 with Economic Geography, 9 with Anthropogeography, 5 with Political Geography, 4 with Educational Geography, and one each with Phytogeography and with Exploration. A dinner was held the evening of Dec. 30.

Teachers of geography will be especially interested in the endorsement by the Association of American Geographers of the scheme for forming a National Association of Geography Teachers, as suggested by Mr. G. J. Miller in the Journal of Geography for October.

For the coming year the Society elected the following officers: President, R. E. Dodge; First Vice-President, Mark Jefferson; Second Vice-President, Frank Carney; Secretary, Isaiah Bowman; Treasurer, F. E. Matthes; Councilors, William Libbey, R. DeC. Ward, and A. H. Brooks. The Society accepted with regret the resignation of Prof. R. E. Dodge as Editor of the Annals of the Association of American Geographers, appointing Prof. H. H. Barrows in his place. The attendance was about 50. The Society is indebted to Professors Salisbury, Goode, Barrows, and Tower and to the University of Chicago for entertainment and for luncheon on Dec. 29 and 30.

The Annals of this society, advertised on a later page, would be a substantial addition to the library of any normal or high school.

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A GLIMPSE AT NEBRASKA INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

By Melvin R. Gilmore

University of Nebraska

HEN the nature and scope of what is here termed the Indian Geography of Nebraska is understood, it will be seen that the limits of

this paper can afford only a glimpse of the subject.

Since geography is the study of the earth's relation to life, the science may be divided into physical geography and biogeography. Physical geography deals with the natural conditions of land, water and air, and their interrelations. Thus we may consider the physical aspects of the earth as a whole or of any part of it. Biogeography, or the study of the life relations, depends upon the physical geography. Biogeography is considered under the subheads, phytogeography, zoogeography, and anthropogeography, or the distribution and activities of mankind.

Indian geography of Nebraska, is a discussion of this region in relation to the occupation by the aboriginal tribes. A moment's thought gives us to understand that the distribution and interrelations of all forms of life have greatly changed in the last century, and especially in the last half century. In that time, the human population of Nebraska has not only increased from probably twelve thousand persons to more than one hundred times that number, but the native race and all its activities have been replaced by a population, which, though, in some degree cosmopolitan, is overwhelmingly European racially and wholly European culturally. Strange as it may seem I daresay that much less is known of the arts and industries, the food, the clothing and housing, the political organization, the religious and philosophical attitude of mind of our native Americans, than is known of the Asiatic races. We know more of the mythology, the literature, and the government of Japan than we do of the myths and mythological places of Nebraska, or of the stories and the political structure of the tribes which so recently occupied the region where we now reside. We know more about the sagas of Norway than we do about the hero songs of the Omahas and the Pawnees.

The great change in the human population has involved enormous changes in the character and distribution of the plant and animal life in this region. Within less than forty years the native prairie flora has been wholly eradicated from vast areas. These tracts have been planted with grains, grasses, fruits and vegetables which we brought with us from Europe, besides the dandelion, burdock, mullein, catnip, and many other plants which have accompanied us and have established themselves just as the rats and mice also have done. Besides this, towns and cities and roads have been built, and groves and parks have been planted where no forest growth was seen before. Accompanying these floral changes necessarily have come great faunal changes. Where herds of tens of thousands of the native American cattle, the buffalo, grazed only a few decades ago not one individual is now to be seen. Instead there are herds of European cattle. And so with the deer, antelope, and other native animals; they have been displaced by animals from Europe.

A year ago White Horse, of the Omahas and over 80 years old, said to me: "When I was a youth, the country was beautiful. Along the rivers were belts of timber land, where grew cottonwoods, maples, elms, oaks, hickory and walnut trees, and many other kinds. Also there were various vines and shrubs. And under all these grew many good herbs and beautiful flowering plants.

"On the prairie was the waving green grass and many other pleasant plants. In both the woodland and prairie I could see the trails of many kinds of animals and hear the cheerful songs of birds. When I walked abroad I could see many forms of life, beautiful living creatures of many kinds, which the Master of Life had placed here; and these were, after their manner, walking, flying, leaping, running, feeding, and playing all about.

"Now the face of the land is all changed and sad. The living creatures are gone. I see the land desolate, and I suffer an unspeakable sadness. Sometimes I wake in the night and I feel as though I should suffocate from the pressure of this awful feeling of lonesomeness."

The subject of my paper comprehends only something of the geography of Nebraska relating to its occupation by the tribes of the American race. First of all it should be remembered that the American race is not all one people, but comprises many stocks, just as does our Indo-European race. There are fifty-six different linguistic stocks in North America north of Mexico. Of these there are within the bounds of the United States tribes speaking two hundred languages. In Nebraska there are tribes of three different stocks speaking at least six different languages. These stocks are the Siouan, Caddoan, and Algonquian. Of the Siouan stock there were in the region of the North Platte River and along the northern border of what is now Nebraska several tribes of the Dakota Confederacy. On the lower Niobrara River was the Ponka tribe. The Omaha were in northeast Nebraska, and the Oto in the southeast. West of the Omaha and Oto was the Pawnee nation of four tribes, extending from the Niobrara River southwestward to the Solomon River. The Pawnee nation is of Caddoan stock. The Cheyenne and Arapaho of the Algonquian stock lying in eastern Colorado extended over a little of the southwest part of Nebraska. Among these tribes the relations sustained between the Omaha and Pawnee were uniformly friendly; the relations between these two tribes and the Dakota were uniformly hostile. As for the relations between these and the other tribes of the region, they were sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile. The Cheyenne and Arapaho held the farthest southwestern outpost of the Algonquian stock, their nearest relatives being the Chippewa of Minnesota, from whom they had been wedged off by the intrusion of the other two races, the Caddoan and Siouan. The Pawnees had migrated into this country from the southwest. According to their own. traditions and from other evidence, it appears that the tribes of the Siouan stock had migrated from the east, their westernmost group, the Teton Dakota, reaching the Black Hills about the end of the eighteenth century. Ever since they seem to have been pressing southward upon the Pawnees, so much so that just before the settlement of Europeans in this region, the pressure had

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