is the lack of a true concept of the modern science among the great mass of our teachers. You who are here today represent a minority who are specially interested in the subject. You also represent a very small percentage of the teachers of this state. There is also a lack of a commonly accepted basis for determining what should be included as geography. It is for the purpose of arriving at a working basis that this particular subject was chosen for this round table. We will not have books with this concept dominant until the teaching force know what they want and demand it. Often I am asked: "Why does not some one write a book that really represents the modern science?" The simple reason is that no one would publish it. The book men are careful students of what the teachers want and they try to fulfill that demand. If you were a publisher you would do the same. Many of our teachers want a book that will teach itself, a book that the pupil can read and then recite. When our teachers demand a text conforming fully with the best conception of the science then such books will be supplied. Publishers are loth to issue a book in this particular field, because they realize that the science is fast taking shape and that a book, along the old lines, will be out of date before they can realize a profit commensurable with the cost.

Much of our geography is still place geography. I do not mean to imply that place geography is unimportant. It probably constitutes a very large proportion of the material that the student will use in after life and is, therefore, of vital importance. Far too much of it has been the "naming and locating of places and telling for what noted." This makes it mere memory work and has little to commend it. The study of a great city like Chicago, New York, Minneapolis, etc., from the standpoint of the factors that have caused them to become great cities, is of vital value. This kind of study accomplishes all that was ever gained by the old method of procedure and very much more. There are relatively few places in the world that the average person needs to know to read the papers and magazines intelligently, or that he needs in the average business or professional life. The essentials of the fact side of geography have been excellently summarized by Prof. Whitbeck* as follows:

"Given an unlettered map of the United States, on which the states are outlined, our grammar-school graduate ought to be able to write the names of the states in their proper places. He ought to be able to do as much for the important divisions of South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.

"He should know the approximate location of the eight or ten best known rivers of the Mississippi system; three or four of the Pacific rivers, and two or three of Canada; the three great river systems of South America, four or five of Africa, a half-dozen of Asia, two or three of the British Isles, of France, of Germany, and of Russia; also the Po and Danube. He should, of course, know the rivers of the region in which he lives.

*R. H. Whitbeck: Journal of Geography, Vol. 4, 1905, pp. 149-154.

"He should know the location of such arms of the ocean as are highways of the world's great commercial movements.

"He should know the location of those islands and groups of islands that are real factors in the world's activities, or have a great historical interest.

"He should know the facts of position, direction of trend, etc., of the half-dozen most important mountain systems or mountain groups of North America; the Andes, Apennines, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Ural, Himalaya, and Altai; the location of a few of the most frequently mentioned peaks, such, as Mt. Blanc and Mt. Everest.

"There are a few capes that are often mentioned, such as Horn, and Good Hope, and their location is worth knowing.

"He ought to know something of the location of the chief colonies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Holland, and the United States.

"He ought to know something of the location of some twenty-five of the chief cities of the United States, what those cities stand for in our industrial and commercial life, and the advantages of their situation. There are twenty or thirty foreign cities whose location should be definitely known, and also something of what these cities stand for. In addition to these there are fifty or more other cities at home and abroad whose names ought to be familiar to the pupil. It is sufficient to know in what state or nation these are located."

More recently there has been a tendency to emphasize industrial geography. Obviously this is one of the most important phases of human response to the environment. Not all phases of industry, however, are wholly a response to the environment and such elements must be taken into consideration. The unfortunate outcome of the introduction of this phase of geography has been a study of processes of manufacture and the mechanical construction of machinery. If these processes are an outgrowth of the natural environment of an industry then they are suitable for geographic study, otherwise they are not. The details of the process of manufacturing rubber boots cannot be made geography by the wildest stretch of the imagination. If your course is designed for a strictly vocational or technical school then processes are in order. In this case do not call it geography but more properly a "Study of Industries." Another unfortunate phase has been the memorizing of the leading producers-states, nations, etc.—of this or that commodity. Memorizing of these facts has very little value.

GEOGRAPHY AND THE STATE EXAMINATIONS

I am asked frequently, "What can I do when I have to get my pupils ready to pass the state examinations?" "I would like to introduce some real live material into my work but the examinations count for everything in my town." If this condition is really prevalent in this State it is most unfortunate. The preparation of children to pass examinations is the poorest possible ideal in education. It is a ridiculous situation if the children of the Iron

Range must be given the same instruction as the children of this manufacturing city (St. Paul), or those of an agricultural community.

On the other hand State examinations need not be a serious matter. If we have a course of study properly arranged it will allow plenty of latitude for any teacher to meet the demands of his community and the questions based upon it will be broad enough for any part of the State. Such questions should not, under any circumstances, deal with petty details or be confined to "naming and locating places and telling for what noted." These questions should be made out by some one who has the broadest possible view of the subject and of the conditions prevailing in all parts of the State. It is this kind of a course of study that we must insist upon getting-a course of study based upon the fundamentals of the science and not upon unimportant details. You as teachers can do a great deal for the cause by creating a demand for sane and scientific geography.

AIMS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY

What should be the aims in organizing geography work in the elementary school in conformity with the relationship concept? They should be:

1. To give knowledge of geographic facts and principles.

2. To acquire ability to use that knowledge in daily life-the practical side.

3. To develop habits of clear, logical thinking from cause to effect or vice versa.

Time does not permit a discussion of these aims, but they should be kept in mind when we attempt to establish criteria for determining what the subject-matter should be. In passing we ought, at least, to note that much is said about arranging the subject-matter to fit the child, just as though such an arrangement, if properly made, was not at the same time a logical arrangement of the geographical material itself. I do not hold that there is any one logical method of arranging material to fit the child. It is obvious, however, that any logical arrangement must of necessity fit the child or otherwise it is not logically arranged. A logical course of study for children in geography, therefore, must at the same time be pedagogical. If it is not, then the pedagogy is illogical, as is frequently the case.

ESTABLISHMENT OF CRITERIA

I fully realize the danger involved in stating definite criteria for determining what should be included as geography, yet such criteria are of far more importance than naming all the things to be eliminated or included. It is essential to have some sort of a "measuring stick" if our subject is to be recognized and to become established as a definite science. In naming the criteria I reserve the right to alter them as the science develops although at the present time I see no reason for stating them differently. They, at least, have the commendable feature of offering a working basis for the

establishment of a better conception of the subject than now prevails, i. e., if the Report of the Committee on Elementary Course Study of the Minnesota Educational Association indicates the prevailing concept.

This report aims to state the minimum that should be required. Obviously the minimum required must be the essentials of the subject. On page 13 under the caption "Plains and Plateaus of Eurasia" it states that the minimum to be learned are the "Plateau of Iran," "Plateau of Tibet," and the "Desert of Gobi." The entire great plains of Eurasia upon which the people live, build their cities, their railroads, their schools, their churches, their art galleries, carry on their agriculture, and most of their commerce, and upon which their whole life is dependent and is intimately associated are not included as of sufficient importance to be known. Is it conceivable that any teacher intimately associated with the subject would ever make any such list of essentials? It is not to be understood that I am condemning this report as a whole. The idea is good but it is unfortunate that one containing such absurdities should be allowed to influence teaching in this State.

Considering modern geography as a study of life response to the natural environment the criteria for determining whether subject-matter is geographic may be stated under two heads-Natural Environment and Life Response. These criteria are as follows:

1.

Natural Environment:

Is it a part of the natural environment?

2. Does it exert any important influence upon life-plant, animal, and human?

3. Is it essential to an understanding of the causal relationship of life to that environment?

Life Response:

1. Is the plant and animal subject-matter being tested, clearly a response (in whole or in part) to the natural environment?

2. Are the human activities (or physiological conditions) clearly a response to natural environment?

Determining whether material is geographic is only part of our problem because we are primarily interested in elementary school work. Let us make the assumption that we have an outline of study logically arranged in subject-matter and adapted to each grade, but broad enough to allow adaptation to a particular locality. Obviously the essentials of such an outline must be known before the suitability of any subject-matter can be judged. It is also apparent that if the following criteria are logical they will be of assistance in organizing such an outline, as well as being useful in guiding the individual teacher in selecting material and placing emphasis. The criteria for determining whether certain subject-matter should be included in grade reography may be stated as follows:

Natural Environment:

1. Is this particular element of the environment essential to an understanding of other elements of the environment and responses, in the succeeding parts of the course?

2. Is this particular element of vital importance for the child to know in after life, even though it is not provided for in the course of study?

Life Response:

1. Is this particular subject matter concerning plant and animal life clearly a response to the natural environment and within the comprehension of the child?

2. Are the human responses, especially human activities, clearly responses to the natural environment and within the comprehension of the child?

3. Are these life responses clearly essential for a child to know in daily life even though not provided for in the course of study?

If the subject-matter which is being tested meets these requirements then it is clearly suitable to consider in the science of geography. I realize fully that much material now taught as geography will not be included. For example, it has been an age-long habit to treat forms of government (names of officers, monarchies, et cetera) as geography. Obviously such things belong in civics or history and not in geography. The plea that they are desirable or essential to know, and that the civics and history provides no place for them is the poorest possible excuse for pushing them into geography. If man's activities have created a form of government that is a response to his environment then that phase of government is a suitable subject for geography. There are many such cases in the world, but that phase of the subject is discussed rarely in our geography classes. Our own state offers many examples of government response to its natural environment, such as its laws. governing forests, mining, water power, grading of wheat, etc., etc. But the fact that we have a governor, that the state is divided into counties with a county seat in each, that we have a particular sort of legislature, etc., are not responses to geographic environment (or at least remotely so) and are, therefore, no part of geography. Even the names of literary masters and famous artists are included in some courses of geography.

If we can agree upon this concept of the subject and upon the criteria for determining its content, we should do everything possible to encourage better teaching of this important science.

The Division of School Libraries of the University of the State of New York has published a well-selected Commercial Subjects Section of the Annotated Book List for Secondary School Libraries (Albany, 1914, 16 pages), with many geographical titles.