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A corps consists of 30,000 to 50,000 men. The first skirmish occurred at Zalotche the next day, the Russians having invaded Austrian territory with the vanguard of the 6 corps which faced them. During the first week in September the Russians captured the fortified capital city, Lemberg, about 60 miles inside the Austrian frontier. They then besieged and isolated the great

fortress of Przemysl, 55 miles farther west.

Early in August the Austrians had invaded southeastern Poland; and on August 21st they had 2 army corps north of Kielce, over 40 miles inside the Russian border, while 7 corps had crossed the River San and were heading toward Lublin. They were less than 90 miles southwest of the great Russian concentration camp at Brest-Litefsk on the Bug River. They seem to have turned the Russians back near Krasnik, east of the San, in two battles during the last week in August. However, the Russians soon had a million and a half troops to face the Austrian million. They met along a line of battle 150 to 200 miles in length and the Austrians had to yield, but not without a stubborn series of fights. The Russians eventually drove the Austrians westward 60 or 70 miles over the Galician and Polish battlefields of Grodek, Rawaruska, Tomaszow, Lublin, and Ivangorod to the line of the Rivers San and Vistula, always apparently with the river valleys as temporarily effective factors. The valley of the San is 350 to 1000 feet in depth in some places. The swamps of the Galician and Polish Plains seem to have aided the Russians in the decimation of the Austrian army corps.

Halicz and Miklaiow, southeast of Lemberg were captured by the Russains by the middle of September and Jaroslaw and Chyrow near Przemysl before the end of the month. Although the great topographic barrier of the Carpathian mountain wall has protected Hungary from invasion, the passes have been entered by victorious Russians, who penetrated as far as Uzsok the latter part of September. Parties of Cossacks went 40 miles into Hungary to Ungvar. The hesitation along the San during October seems to mark only the reinforcement of the Austrian line by the Germans rather than any permanent turn in the tide. On October 29th the Russians were advancing west of the San, and if Przemysl falls they will doubtless move westward on Cracow, if indeed it does not surrender sooner, leaving an Austrian force trapped between the Russian army and the high Carpathians, with their snowfilled passes. Tarnow, which is less than 50 miles east of Cracow, was in the hands of the Russians between September 25th and the 1st of October, but was lost again, and then reoccupied on November 14th. Austria has been under the disadvantage of having two army corps in the western campaign in France for a time and a large force facing the Servians in Bosnia and Servia, as well as suffering from disease, the Asiatic cholera having broken out among the troops in Galicia about the middle of October.

Bukovina is an Austrian province southeast of Galicia and similar in topography. Nearly half its area is in forest. It is about half as large as

Massachusetts. No strong force has been sent against this unimportant province. Czernowitz, the capital, is reported as won and lost and won again by the Russians; and early in October a party of Russians had crossed the Carpathians and were at Rodna Pass in Transylvania. Bukovina is separated from Austria-Hungary by the great rampart of the Carpathians and inhabited wholly by peoples of Russian and Roumanian blood.

GERMAN ADVAances and RetTREATS IN POLAND

Between Galicia and East Prussia lies Poland, a low, rolling plain with its flat-lying young rocks almost completely covered by glacial deposits. It stands 250 to 700 feet above sea level, Lysa Gora, a small upland area near Kielce reaching 2000 feet, About one-fifth of Poland is, forest. Its predominantly Polish population has certainly not been anti-Russian in sympathy during the campaign. Here the first months of the war were without notable activity. The undefended city of Lodz, 60 miles east of the German frontier and 90 miles north of Cracow was occupied by a German force early in September. The Germans invaded Poland in larger numbers the last week in September but were defeated at Kalisz on the frontier. Russian forces threatened Breslau 3 times during September, without success,

Considerably later the Germans entered Poland in force between Thorn, Kalisz and Cracow, rapidly penetrating 125 miles to the east of their frontier and driving the Russians back to Blonie and Senkocin. Here the Germans were within 8 to 14 miles of Warsaw, which was in serious danger of capture the second week in October. They seem to have held all Poland west of the Vistula at one time but never to have been able to cross the shallow valley of the Vistula, whose volume is such that it tends to be effective as a geographic barrier. From this position the Russians forced the Germans back, first outflanking them with cavalry from the fortress of Novo-Georgiewsk, northwest of Warsaw where the Bug enters the Vistula, so that the first week in November (Fig. 2) saw them driven more than 60 miles to the southwest, with difficult marshy country through which to retreat. The natural line on which they halted is that of the River Warta or Widawka. Along this river, 100 to 120 miles from Warsaw and only 10 to 40 miles from the German boundary, engagements took place the 7th of November near Kolo, Warta, and Sieradz, as well as to the south near Czentochau. The next day the Russians crossed the German boundary to Pleschen, near Kalisz and 50 miles southeast of Posen. On November 9th the Germans were making a stand between the Warta and their frontier.

North of the Vistula near Plock, however, they were still within 70 miles of Warsaw, having reinforced their line with troops from Thorn and East Prussia, checking the Russian advance and driving them back after they had penetrated past Lipno (Fig. 2). On November 20th the Germans were again advancing near Novo-Radomsk, Kutno and Leczyca, though the last week in November saw the German army defeated near Lodz and split into 3 dangerously isolated forces between the Vistula and the Warta.

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Fig. 2. Map showing approximate position of Russian, German, and Austrian forces at varied dates, the lines drawn in each case representing farthest advance of invading force at the time specified. Between Nov. 16th and 20th the Germans readvanced along the Vistula, driving the Russians back near Lipno and Kutno, but suffering what seems to be a disastrous defeat near Lodz the last week in November.

At the end of 3 months of fighting the whole eastern campaign has involved (a) Russian advance, retreat, and readvance in morainic East Prussia, (b) a thorough defeat for Austria in hilly central Galicia, (c) Austrian advance and retreat in swampy southeastern Poland, and (d) German

advance, retreat, and advance in the plain of southwest Poland. Russia has made no notable progress toward Berlin, which has no hilly country between, as Cracow has, and no mountain barrier as in the case of Vienna. It is highly creditable to Germany that her armies still spread out beyond both her eastern and western frontiers after three and one-half months of fighting, a period half as long as that of the whole Franco-Prussian war. On the other hand Russia has repulsed strong German forces near the Niemen and before Warsaw. She has reduced Austria to the position of a burden upon rather than an aid to Germany, and has demonstrated that her forces can advance effectively in the sort of topographic situations that separate her from the German capital, although the plain of eastern Germany could never be crossed with ease by an invading force. The lines of the rivers Vistula and Oder in Germany contain strong topographic positions for defense, though not as strong as those of the low mountains between Berlin, the Rhine, and France.

It does not seem probable that the entering of Turkey into the fray as an ally of Germany and Austria will complicate the campaign in eastern Germany. A more formidable enemy of both sides is the coming winter.

PETROLEUM AND THE WAR.

The Russian oil wells in the Caspian-Black Sea district are of importance in the present war, with the large use of gasoline for aeroplanes, automobiles, and trucks used in transporting food for the armies and in moving field artillery. There are oil wells in Galicia which Russia has captured from Austria-Hungary. In 1912 Russia ranked next to United States in petroleum production, Roumania being fourth and Galicia sixth. Germany has little petroleum, but she has a great quantity of potatoes, and probably an excess of sugar, and Hungary has much corn. As alcohol can be made from all three of these, there seemingly need be no shortage of fuel for internal-combustion engines in Germany, provided they are equipped to substitute alcohol for gasoline.

KIAU-CHAU.

Germany's only Asiatic possession is situated west of Korea. It is 350 miles north of Shanghai and about the same distance southeast of Peking, China, on the southern side of the Shantung Peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, being tied to the mainland by the delta of the Hoang Ho or Yellow River. On the northern side of the Shantung Peninsula is the British port of Weihaiwei. Tsing-Tau, the chief city of Kiau-Chau surrendered November 5th, after an eleven weeks' siege by the Japanese and British.

Graf von Pfeil describes Kiau-Chau in Mill's International G

as follows: "Kiau-chau is a large bay of 180 square miles area on the southern coast of the peninsula of Shantung. It takes its name from the "Glue city", 22 miles north of it. The Kiau river coming from the mountains in the eastern portion of Shantung brings down much sand, which causes the bay to silt up. The entrance of the bay, between two narrow spits of land, is about two miles wide and 20 fathoms deep. The landspits, together with the islands in the bay, are leased by Germany from China, while the German sphere of interest extends all round the bay for a distance of 31 miles. The climate is excellent, and quite that of the temperate zone; ice occurs in winter, but as it hardly ever covers the bay it does not form such an impediment to navigation as the fogs which are frequent on the coast further south, from which Kiau-chau is perfectly free. The greatest rainfall occurs in July and August. The inhabitants are agriculturists who have carried a system of irrigation to great perfection. The tidiness of their settlements is a mark of their prosperity. Kiau-chau is expected to prove valuable as an outlet for the great mineral wealth of Shantung."

The Stateman's Yearbook for 1914 gives this additional information: "Kiau-Chau, on the east coast of the Chinese province of Shan-tung, was seized by Germany in November, 1897; the town, harbour, and district were by treaty transferred to Germany on a 99 years' lease, March 6, 1898; and the district was declared a Protectorate of the German Empire, April 27, 1898. The administration is entrusted to the navy department, and a naval officer is governor.

Area, about 200 square miles, exclusive of the bay. There are 33 townships, and a population of about 192,000; white population with the garrison, 1913, 4,470 (Germans, 3,806). Surrounding the district and bay is a neutral zone, its area being about 2,500 square miles, and population about 1,200,000. There are 50 German schools for Chinese, mostly taught by missionaries. At Tsing-Tau there is a school for European children with 140 and a higher-class school with 145 pupils. For the year 1914 the sum required for administrative expenses was 16,787,625 marks (about $4,197,000). (Imperial subvention, 9,560,000 marks, $2,390,000). The garrison (3,125 men) consists of German marines, with a small force of Chinese soldiers.

The products are fruits, beans, ground-nuts, sweet potatoes, etc., and silk culture, coal mining, briquette-making, brewing, soap-making are carried on, and there is a prosperous silk factory. Over 1,000 Chinese are employed on the floating dock. At Kiau-Chau in 1911 the imports amounted to 114,938,000 marks ($28,734,500) and the exports to 80,295,000 marks ($20,073,000). The chief imports were raw cotton, cotton goods, and cotton yarn, metals, paper, sugar, and matches. The chief exports were straw braid, silk, ground nut and bean oil, and Shantung pongees. In 1911, 614 vessels of 1,070,000 tons entered at Kiau-Chau. 6,014 junks entered, and 5,550 cleared. A railway, Tsing-Tau to Poshan=272 miles.'

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