Count Andrassy was the Premier. He and his Empress went to Pesth, where, after signing a charter in the presence of the magnates and deputies of Hungary, they were crowned King and Queen of Hungary. On the same day Francis Joseph issued an Act of Grace, granting amnesty to political offenders, restoring confiscated estates, and other like conciliatory

measures.

In the British House of Parliament an act was passed, late in March, for the union of the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick under the name of Canada. Later in the year, the new Canadian Parliament was opened at Ottawa, the capital of the Confederation, by GovernorGeneral Lord Monck.

The Fenian conspirators determined to terrorize the British people by extending their operations to England. Within a few days after the Ministers had announced the early restoration of the Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland, a band of conspirators, led by some former Irish officers of the American army, attempted a surprise of the arsenal at Chester, England. Their designs were frustrated. Soon after this fiasco, the Fenian leaders tried to foment insurrection in different parts of Ireland, but failed signally. In the autumn they attempted another stroke outside of Ireland. A concerted attack was made on a Manchester prison to rescue certain Fenian convicts, but the would-be rescuers were foiled. Another attempt to deliver some of the convicts from prison cost many innocent lives. The Government resorted to severe measures of retaliation.

Michael Faraday, the eminent English scientist, died on August 25, in his seventy-third year. In 1821 while assisting Davy at the Royal Institution, Faraday made the brilliant discovery of the convertible rotation of a magnetic pole and an electric current, which was the prelude to his wonderful series of experiments in electricity. During the follow

1867

PURCHASE OF ALASKA

ing years, Faraday established the identity of the forces manifested in electric, galvanic, and magnetic phenomena.

In the United States of America, early in the year, a motion had been made in the House to impeach President Johnson. Representative Ashley of Ohio charged the President with "usurpation of power and violation of law," by corruptly using the appointing, pardoning, and veto power. The charge was referred to the Judiciary Committee by 108 over 39 votes. By a majority of five to four, this body deided against impeachment. Thaddeus Stevens now introduced a reconstruction bill to divide the Southern States into five military districts to be administered by army officers In amended form the bill was passed by both Houses of Congress. The President vetoed it on March 23. The President's veto was overridden by big majorities in both Houses of Congress. Under this act General Schofield took charge of a military district at Richmond, General Sickles at Columbia, General Pope at Montgomery, General Ord at Vicksburg, and General Sheridan at New Orleans.

The finances of the Union Pacific Railway, running through these Territories, became one of the political scandals of this time. It was charged in Congress that the stock of the company had been placed "where it would do most good." The charge involved the Vice-President of the United States, the Republican nominee for the Vice-Presidency, the Secretary of the Treasury, Speaker Blaine, and other prominent leaders of the Republican party.

Meanwhile a treaty had been approved by which the Territory of Alaska was purchased from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000. A tract of land covering 590,884 square miles was thus acquired.

In the Cabinet differences of opinion between the President and Secretary of War, Stanton, concerning the proposed military measures of reconstruction, led at last to open

JOHNSON REMOVES STANTON

1867

rupture. In August the President called upon his Secretary of War to resign his office "on public considerations of a high character." Stanton in an open letter refused to resign. President Johnson thereupon suspended Stanton, and ordered him to transmit the affairs of his office to General Grant ad interim. Stanton yielded, while protesting that he denied the right of the President under the Constitution to suspend him without the advice and consent of the Senate, according to the provisions of the recent tenure of office act. With Stanton out of the way, the President now removed General Sheridan from the military department of Louisiana and General Sickles from that of North Carolina. In the course of the autumn President Johnson issued a proclamation granting an amnesty to all persons in the South who had taken part in the late war, with the exception of the Confederate Government officers and persons convicted and in custody. On November 25, a Congressional Committee recommended by a majority of five to four that "Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, be impeached for high crime and misdemeanors." The motion for impeachment was brought forward in the House of Representatives on December 7, and was defeated by 108 over 57 votes.

The civil war in Japan reached its turning point during this year. The new Shogun, finding his own support insufficient, abdicated his office and withdrew. Shortly afterward the Mikado, Komei-Tenno, died in his thirty-eighth year, leaving a young boy, Mutsuhito, as heir to the throne. A general amnesty was proclaimed.

During autumn in Italy another rising in the Papal States was instigated by Garibaldi. Bands of his followers marched upon Rome. Garibaldi was arrested by order of Victor Emmanuel's government near Sienna, as he was on the point of crossing the Papal frontier. He was conveyed to the fortress of Alessandria to be confined there, but was

1867

FRENCH OCCUPY ROME

soon permitted to return to his residence on the island of Caprera, under surveillance of Italian ships of war. Several armed bands of his followers were dispersed while attempting to invade the Papal territories. The Pope withdrew all his troops from the provinces with the exception of the garrisons of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo, and concentrated them in the capital. The officers in the French auxiliary force threw up their commissions, and the greatest alarm prevailed in Rome. By the end of September and early in October, swarms of Italian volunteers had crossed the frontier in different places and established themselves on Papal territory. Several conflicts occurred. The command of the raiders was bequeathed by Garibaldi to his son Menotti. On October 13 the Papal troops defeated a body of Garibaldians at Monte Librate, but the invaders soon received reenforcements and compelled the troops to retreat. Desultory fighting continued until Napoleon III despatched a French expedition to Rome to suppress the invasion. This unwelcome intervention on the part of France caused the downfall of the Ratazzi Ministry in Florence, and King Victor Emmanuel called upon General Menabrea to form a Cabinet. In the meantime, Garibaldi had slipped out of Caprera and reappeared on the scene of conflict. He succeeded in capturing Monte Rotondo, where he established his headquarters. On October 28, however, a French squadron arrived at Civita Vecchia and landed troops. Two days later the French soldiers entered Rome amid sullen silence on the part of the inhabitants. General Menabrea called upon France to withdraw her troops. Instead of that, Napoleon III proposed that the political status of the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy should be settled by an international conference. Most of the European Powers readily accepted the French Emperor's proposal, as did the Pope. King Victor Emmanuel's troops received orders to evacuate the Papal dominions.

EVENTS OF 1868

Congress Impeaches President Johnson for Violating Tenure of Office Act by Removing Stanton, Secretary of War-He is Acquitted by Margin of One Vote-Congress Reconstructs Southern States Over President's Veto-Grant is Elected President-Gladstone Becomes Prime Minister-British Expedition under Napier against Theodorus of Abyssinia-Napier Captures Magdala-Theodorus Kills Himself -Mikado Abolishes Shogunate-Imperial Troops Rout Forces of Shogun-Michael, Sovereign of Servia, is Assassinated-Milan Succeeds Him-Deaths of Rossini, the Italian Composer, and Berryer, the French Orator-Gérôme Exhibits Masterpiece-Isabella Banishes Spanish Generals-Revolutionists Bring Them Back-Revolutionists under Serrano Beat Royalists under Novaliches at AlcoleaIsabella Flees to France-Revolutionists Organize Provisional Government-Mauritius, Hawaii, and Peru and Ecuador are Devastated Respectively by Cyclone, Tidal Wave, and Earthquake.

HE dissensions between the United States Congress and President Johnson reached a turning point at

the very outset of the year. The House of Rep

resentatives, on January 24, commended the course of General Sheridan as Military Governor of Louisiana, and censured President Johnson for his dismissal of that officer. Ten days later the Senate refused to sanction the President's removal of Secretary Stanton from the War Office. His successor, General Grant, promptly vacated the office, and Mr. Stanton resumed his functions. After a few weeks President Johnson once more dismissed Stanton, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas to succeed him. The Senate then declared the appointment of Thomas illegal. Stanton put Thomas under arrest. He was released on bail. The President thereupon nominated Thomas Ewing of Ohio as Secretary of War. On March 5 the Senate convened a court of impeachment, with Chase, the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, in the chair, and the President was summoned to appear. Benjamin F. Butler opened the case against the President