EVENTS OF 1881 Boers Beat British at Majuba Hill-Treaty Grants Them Independence Except in Foreign Relations-Deaths of Carlyle, Disraeli, and Dostoyevsky, Russian Novelist-Skobelev Subdues Turkomans-Assassi nation of Alexander II-He is Succeeded by His Son, Alexander III -Assassination of President Garfield-Arthur Becomes President -Mikado Promulgates New Constitution-Dr. Ogden Discovers Cause of Suppuration to be Bacteria-Deaths of Littré, the Philologist, and Auguste Blanc, the Conspirator-Tunis Rebels against French Protectorate-Vice-Admiral Garnault Storms Sfax-General Saussier Subdues Arabs in Southern Tunis. T HE state of affairs in the Transvaal grew threaten ing for the English. On January 3 Joubert, the Boer Commandant, was at Cold Stream on the borders of Natal with 700 men. Colonel Winsloe was besieged outside Potchefstroom, Sir Owen Lanyan at Pretoria, and Major Montague at Starndeon. The Boers had also taken possession of Utrecht and were besieging Lydenberg. The victories gained in the next month by the Boers culminated in the defeat of the British at Majuba Hill, on the 27th of February. On that Saturday night some 600 British troops under Sir George Colby intrenched themselves at the top of Majuba Hill, overlooking the enemy's position at Laing's Nek. The Boers were not aware of this movement until the British opened fire upon them at 5 A. M. After six hours' firing, in which everything seemed favorable for the British, the Boers, 400 in number, stormed Majuba Hill. General Colby was killed, and with him fell two officers and The Boers took 122 prisoners. Unwilling further to prosecute the war, Prime Minister Gladstone entered into a treaty of peace by which the Boers gained their independence. England reserved to herself the right to veto all foreign treaties that might be entered into by the South African Republic. 82 men. 1881 DEATHS OF CARLYLE AND BEACONSFIELD During this period England lost one of the greatest of her modern prose writers in Thomas Carlyle. The publication of "Sartor Resartus," in 1833, made Carlyle famous. His next work of importance was "The French Revolution," which appeared in 1837. In 1845 he published "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches," with elucidations of his own. This work served to turn the current of English feeling in favor of the great Protector. The longest and most laborious of all Carlyle's works was the "History of Frederick the Great.” Carlyle's death was followed by that of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, the eminent British statesman and novelist. Of Jewish extraction, he was the eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of the "Curiosities of Literature." In 1826 Benjamin Disraeli published his first novel, “Viv ian Grey," which achieved immediate success. In 1837 Disraeli gained an entrance to the House of Commons from Maidstone. His first speech was received with ridicule, but Disraeli finished it with a passionate declaration that the time would come when he must be heard. He became a leader of the so-called "Young England" party. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime Minister and remained in power for six years. It was during this time that he became Earl of Beaconsfield. As such he took a prominent part in the conclusion of the famous Balkan treaty at Berlin in 1878. Within a few months of Disraeli's death, the publication of a last novel called "Endymion" showed still the vigor of his intellect. When Feodor Mikhailovitch Dostoyevsky died, Russia lost one of her foremost psychological novelists. Dostoyevsky's trenchant pen often embroiled him in difficulties with the Government. For his participation in a conspiracy in 'ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER II 1881 1849 he was sent to Siberia, where he passed the bitterest time of his life, and where he gathered much of the material afterward used in his powerful stories. On the accession of Alexander II he was pardoned. Dostoyevsky's best known novels are "The Poor People," "The Degraded and Insulted,” "Memoirs from the House of Death," also published as "Buried Alive" (his Siberian memoirs), and "Crime and Punishment." The year had begun in Russia with General Skobelev's brilliant successes over the Tekke Turkomans. On January 24, after a siege of three weeks, the Turkomans' stronghold of Geok Tepe was taken by storm; large quantities of guns, ammunition, and provisions were captured, and the Turkomans fled in confusion, leaving their dead on the field. This virtually terminated the expedition. On April 9 Skobelev received the submission of the principal Turkoman leaders at Askabad. Thus another extensive territory in Central Asia was brought within Russian influence. On March 13, as the Czar was driving along the banks of the Catherine Canal, a dynamite bomb thrown by one Rousakov burst under the carriage, wounding a Cossack and other persons standing near. The Czar stepped out of his carriage unhurt with his brother, the Grandduke Michael. He turned to walk home, when another bomb was thrown. When the smoke cleared away the Czar was lying in a pool of blood, while the assassin with other bystanders lay wounded. The Czar was conveyed to the Winter Palace, where he died two hours later. The draft of a liberal constitution was found in his desk after his assassination. The question of granting a constitution to Russia, discussed between the new Czar, Alexander III, and his advisers, was soon dismissed. Nihilism progressed accordingly. Another sensational assassination was perpetrated this year in the United States of America. President Garfield, 1881 ASSASSINATION OF GARFIELD after four months' administration, was shot on July 2, by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker, in the railway station as the President and Secretary of State Blaine were about to leave Washington for New York. For two months Garfield hovered between life and death, until, on September 19, he suddenly expired. James Abram Garfield began his career as driver for a canal boat. When the Civil War broke out, Garfield, who had become a college president and Senator, was appointed to a Colonelcy and was soon raised to the rank of Brigadier-General. He was Rosecrans's chief of staff, and his gallantry was conspicuous at Chickamauga. While in the field he was elected to Congress, and remained in that body seventeen years. When Arthur became President, Garfield's Cabinet Ministers resigned, but Arthur requested them to retain their places until Congress should meet. All complied except Windom, and Judge Folger of New York took his place. Later Frelinghuysen became Secretary of State in place of Blaine. In October a new Japanese Constitution was promul gated. It consisted of 66 articles, with 266 expositionary clauses. The rights of sovereignty and executive power, according to the organic laws of the Empire, were vested in the person of the Mikado, who was declared inviolable. The Mikado's Ministers were accountable to him alone. Certain expenditures of the realm, specified in the Constitution, were confirmed to the imperial Government in perpetuity. A Parliament (to meet first in 1890) was created to assemble once a year, to be closed or dissolved by the Emperor. The Upper House was composed of three classes; to wit, hereditary peers, nominated peers, and elected members, the last two classes never to exceed the number of hereditary members. The House of Representatives was composed of 300 members, of national taxpayers to the amount of $15 annually, FRENCH WAR WITH TUNIS 1881 each to serve four years. Trial by jury, freedom from search, of religious belief, of speech, of press, and of public meeting within the limits of civic ordinances, were confirmed to the Japanese people in a bill of rights. Dr. Ogden of Aberdeen published an account of experiments which he had made to ascertain the causes of inflammation and suppuration. He arrived at the conclusion that suppuration was caused by certain bacteria. The results achieved afterward found ample verification. Among the deaths of the year was that of Maximilien Littre, the philologist and philosopher to whom France owes her great "Dictionnaire de la Langue Française." France also lost Auguste Blanc, the great conspirator and brother of the eminent economist Louis Blanc. Auguste Blanc spent thirty-seven years of his life in prison. He died at Paris. During his long life of seventy-six years, he took part in every socialistic and revolutionary movement in France. For the last sixty years France had assumed a protectorate over Tunis. In recent years rivalry had sprung up between the French and Italians. Italy, which had some 15,000 of her subjects there, had considerable commercial interests at stake, while the French were chiefly influenced by political considerations. Finally the Bey rebelled against the French protectorate. Hostile operations against Tunis were undertaken in the last week of April by Generals Logerot, Forgemol, and Delebecque. The island of Taberka, protected by an old Moorish castle, was bombarded by French men-of-war and captured. On the 27th Kep was taken, and on May 1 Biserta was occupied and made a base of operations, 13,000 men landing under Generals Breart and Maurande. When Beja was taken, it was assumed in France that the war was over. The Bey practically accepted the protection of France, and the French expedition was recalled. An |