tive of conditions in large and small industries throughout the Province. The inquiry covered the practices in these establishments in regard to the installation of accident prevention and health measures, recreation, and various insurance and other personnel features.

The workmen's compensation act has had the effect of developing the safety work in industrial plants so that expert mechanical knowledge is being applied to safeguarding dangerous machinery and closer attention is being given to the problems of lighting and ventilation, to good housekeeping methods generally, to the proper placement of employees so that they shall not be a menace to other employees, and to the education of employees in the necessity for the exercise of safe methods and constant precaution. Many of the 300 firms reported a decided improvement in the time lost as a result of accidents, although there is still much to be done in training employees to secure first-aid attention in minor accidents, the report of the workmen's compensation board for 1927 showing that 21 deaths and 38 disabilities, 9 of which were amputations, were due to infections.

The work of accident prevention is closely allied with general health work among employees, and the requirement of the workmen's compensation law that adequate first-aid equipment should be installed was found to be exceeded by many of the firms. More than 70 of the companies employed graduate nurses in the plant hospitals, while several of the larger plants employed full-time doctors to take care of the general health of employees as well as the accident and other emergency work.

Lunch rooms were reported by firms employing approximately 50 per cent of the total number of workers. In these plants a regular dinner was served, usually at cost or less, while several firms had lunch rooms where tea, coffee, and milk were served free or at a nominal charge. In practically no case did the management aim to operate the cafeteria at a profit, while in some cases there was an annual deficit amounting to several thousand dollars.

About 41 per cent of the firms, employing three-quarters of the workers, provide some type of recreation for their employees. In the majority of cases the recreational features are managed by an athletic association or recreation club supported by membership fees and usually receiving an annual contribution from the firm. a few of the larger plants the firm employs a sports director, who devotes his whole time to managing the athletic activities of the employees, while many of the companies provide baseball diamonds and athletic fields with facilities for various sports. It is a rather general practice, in places where the community makes provision for athletics, recreation, and social activities, for the firm to cooperate with the community organizations and to encourage the employees to identify themselves with the community activities.

As in the United States, the practice of giving factory workers vacations with pay has had a considerable development during the past few years. About 60 firms, employing nearly 60,000 workers, were found to be giving an annual vacation with pay to all workers after a stated length of service and 96 firms gave holidays with pay to foremen, time workers, and salaried workers, while in numerous cases workers were allowed to arrange for leave without pay. The usual plan for factory workers is to give one week's vacation after

one, two, or three years' service and two weeks after two to five years' service, although in a few instances a vacation was not given until after ten or more years of employment. The most generous plan found was one giving two weeks with full pay to all factory workers with one year's service or over. Several firms without a definite vacation plan give an annual vacation with pay to the older and more reliable employees. Two or three firms have the 5-day working week for female employees and for this reason make no other provision for holidays, while several companies have the 5-day week during the three summer months for all employees, either in addition to or instead of holidays with pay. Works councils or some form of shop committee were established in about one-fifth of the plants. These councils enable employees to have some voice in the arrangement of working conditions, wages, hours, safety, recreation, education, and general welfare and they are considered to have proved beneficial to both employers and employees.

Insurance plans occupy a prominent place in the industrial-relations plans of the companies visited in the survey. Of the 300 firms scheduled, 212 were reported as having some scheme for the financial advancement of their employees. Seventy-eight firms, employing nearly one-half of the total number, were found to have some form of insurance other than group, and more than 100 firms had a group insurance system in effect. In general, among firms having any form of sick benefits, all permanent employees are eligible for membership and in a few cases it is a necessary condition of employment. Nearly all of the sickness insurance schemes are contributory and in many cases the funds are supported by the employees alone. The amounts of the contributions may be based on length of service, earnings, or age, or the contribution may be set at a flat rate, which is generally less for women. One firm is cited as having established a complete system of financial aid, including sick benefits, group insurance, and pensions, all of which are on an adequate scale, and a cooperative trust fund for the purchase of company stock.

More than one-half of the firms having group insurance pay the entire premium, although the more recent trend is toward the contributory plan. Usually from three months to three years of continuous service is required before an employee can be insured and frequently females are not eligible, or, if so, at a lower rate. Sickness and disability insurance are carried by a number of firms in conjunction with the group life insurance. About 55 per cent of the total employees scheduled were covered by a regular pension scheme while 12 firms reported that old employees were kept on the pay roll at light work as long as possible and when it became necessary to retire them each case was dealt with on its merits. The pension funds were, in most cases, maintained by the employers and in the case of contributory systems the companies make substantial contributions to the funds. From 20 to 25 years' service is usually required for eligibility for a pension and the retirement age is usually 65 years for men and 55 for women.

Bonus systems of various sorts were in force in about one-quarter of the plants visited, these bonuses being paid for punctuality and regularity in attendance, length of service, etc., while a number of firms had plans for the promotion of systematic saving among their

employees. The sale of company stock to employees was not found. to have become a common practice in Ontario although a number of successful plans were reported.

Other features of the industrial relations policies of the companies include legal advice, loans for buying houses, plant papers, suggestion systems, and service clubs, while of great importance is the effort being made by many firms to stabilize employment. One firm, it is said, guarantees 48 weeks' employment per year to all permanent employees, which has resulted in a reduction in turnover.

No inquiry was made as to the wages of the employees covered in this study but as only 1,500 workers were involved in disputes over wages in 1927, it was considered to be an indication that fair rates are generally maintained throughout the Province. The hours of labor are an important factor in the welfare of employees. From reports of 276 firms having 167,634 employees, it was shown that 73 per cent worked a 48-hour week or less, 22 per cent worked from 49 to 54 hours, and 4 per cent worked 55 hours or longer.

Utilizing Slack Seasons in Farming in Suancheng and Nanking, China

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CCORDING to the Chinese Economic Bulletin for October 27, 1928, in slack seasons the farmers of Suancheng distill liquor, make incense dust, and weave. Liquors are distilled from kaoliang, rice, wheat, and barley, and are consumed mainly on the local market. Approximately one-third of these liquors is taken to near-by towns in wooden casks transported by draft animals. certain localities of the district, liquors are also distilled from maize and potatoes.

In

Incense dust is made by drying elm bark in the sun, braying it in a mortar, and passing it through a horsehair sieve.

The greater portion of the cotton cloth used in Suancheng is woven on cottage looms. The farmers generally have a small patch of cotton, and the cotton ginners in the market towns gin the raw cotton for the privilege of keeping the seeds. The ginned cotton is spun into coarse yarn and woven into cloth for the most part for the use of the farmers themselves. In addition to the cottage looms there are from 30 to 40 cloth weaving mills in the city, each having from 3 or 4 to 8 or 9 looms. Certain mills also produce turkish towels. Sackcloth and four other kinds of cloth are also turned out by the mills. The piece rates of the mill hands run from about 10 cents (5 cents United States currency 1) for weaving a piece of lao pu for the smaller size, 1 to 1.1 feet by 30 feet, Chinese measure, to 40 cents (20 cents United States currency) for a piece of sackcloth. The average monthly wage of an experienced hand is from $7 to $8 ($3.50 to $4, United States currency) in addition to lodging and board.

Hosiery knitting is a new industry for the district, there being now about eight or nine family workshops producing cotton socks for local wear. Each workshop has only a few hand-operated knitting

machines.

1 Conversions into U. S. currency made on basis of Chinese dollar = 50 cents. Chinese measure; 1 Chinese foot = 12.6 inches.

The Nanking farmers during slack seasons also take up various remunerative activities. For example, the farmers in the southern suburb deal in drugs and those who live near Hwashengmiao are florists. In the northern suburb sericulture and gardening are the usual extra occupations and in the northeastern suburb liquor brewing is selected. For agriculturists who live near lakes and rivers duck raising, fish culture, and the growing of edible water plants are available.

New Labor and Social Welfare Department in Costa Rica

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DEPARTMENT of labor and social welfare is to be created in Costa Rica as the result of a measure which was approved by the Costa Rican Congress on June 27, 1928, and later signed by the President, according to a statement in the November, 1928, issue of the Pan American Union Bulletin.

The new department is to prepare a labor code setting forth regulations for labor contracts, savings and pension plans, organization of the labor office, labor associations, the housing of laborers, and conciliatory and arbitral proceedings. Among its other functions are to be the organization of a service for the inspection of mines and industries, labor in general, industrial and professional instruction, and insurance and social welfare; the inspection of the execution of labor and social welfare laws; and the foundation and organization of an institute of social studies.

T"

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR AND
INDUSTRY

Progress in National Efficiency

HE increase in the output per worker in the major American industries between 1918-1920 and 1926-27 amounted to 34.5 per cent, according to the annual report of the Secretary of Commerce for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928. The following extracts from the report give the details of the study:

Since the final results of the census of 1927 have not yet been compiled, calculation of the increase in efficiency of the factories down to that year must rest upon the less complete but fairly representative indexes of production of manufactured commodities issued by the Department of Commerce and the less complete index of the number employed in factories issued by the Department of Labor. In the case of agriculture, moreover, it has been necessary to assume a continuance of the decrease in the number of workers on farms revealed by the agricultural census of 1925. While, therefore, the accompanying table is somewhat less nearly precise than that published in the previous annual report it is entirely certain that between 1925 and 1927 there was a further increase in production per worker in both manufacturing and agricultural industry. The table, which even in years covered by census statistics necessarily involves a considerable resort to estimation, nevertheless shows within a reasonable margin the true tendency of American industry since the beginning of the century and since the close of the World War.

It will be seen that as compared with the annual average for the period 1898 to 1900 the average for the two calendar years 1926 and 1927 shows an increase of approximately 55 per cent in the output of farm products, 280 per cent in the output of minerals (an exceptionally large figure, owing particularly to the immense expansion in petroleum production), about 180 per cent in factory output, and over 200 per cent in the volume of rail transportation. These remarkable figures compare with an addition of about 55 per cent to the population of the country. It is obvious that there is produced for each person in the population a far greater volume of goods and services than at the beginning of the century, which means, of course, a great advance in living standards.

In the case of every one of these four major branches of industry the increase in output since 1898 and 1900 has been far greater than that in the number of workers. In agriculture, manufactures, and railways the product of goods or services per worker engaged has increased from 50 to 60 per cent. For mining the increase per worker is much higher, the difference, however, being due to the fact that the production of petroleum has multiplied several times, and that, in the petroleum industry, output per worker, on account of great investment of capital and the generosity of natural resources, is much higher than in other mining industries.