THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF COMMERCE.

Among the more recent additions to American universities are the schools or colleges of commerce or business administration. The typical college of commerce offers to graduates of secondary schools a four-year course leading to the degree of B. S. or A. B. The first part of the course is largely devoted to such foundational subjects as mathematics, English, natural sciences, modern foreign languages, history, and economics. These are followed in the last two years by the broader technical subjects designed to give general preparation for business life, such as various phases of business administration, commercial law, and advanced economics.

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM.

Schools of journalism are also among the newer developments at several universities. These offer to graduates of secondary schools a four-year course leading to the bachelor's degree (A. B., B. Litt., B. J.). The foundation of the work in the schools of journalism is largely composed of courses in the social sciences and English which are designed to familiarize the student with present economic and social conditions and to develop his power of written expression. These courses cover about two years and are followed by technical instruction in the methods of modern journalism. This includes actual practice in reporting, interviewing, and newspaper editing. The aim of all these schools is voiced in the official announcement of the school of journalism of Columbia University. It is "to make better journalists, who will make better newspapers, which will better serve the public."

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF PHARMACY.

The schools of pharmacy, which are now included in most of the larger universities, usually offer courses leading to three different degrees-Ph. G., Ph. C., and B. S. in Pharmacy or Phar. B. The entrance requirements are substantially the same as for those schools and departments already described. The degree of Ph. G. (graduate in pharmacy) is conferred at the end of a two-year course, consisting chiefly of instruction in botany, analytical chemistry, and pharmacy. Several States demand as a prerequisite for a license to practice the profession of pharmacist either a certain amount of practical experience in a place where drugs and medicines are compounded or dispensed or a course of instruction in a school of pharmacy. Courses in pharmacy are adjusted to meet these requirements.

The course leading to the degree of Ph. C. (pharmaceutical chemist) is three years in length. It is "designed more especially for those who wish to enter the commercial field of pharmaceutical chemistry

or food and drug analysis." 1 More advanced instruction in pharmacy is given, together with such general studies as sciences and foreign languages.

The four-year course leading to the degree of B. S. in Pharmacy includes a combination of cultural studies and the advanced work in pharmacy taken by the candidates for the degree of Ph. C.

Opportunities for specialized graduate study and research in some department of pharmacy are frequently offered in the graduate schools of leading universities. The aims and methods of graduate study are essentially the same whatever the department. They are described below. (See under "Graduate School.") The degrees of A. M., M. S., Ph. D., Sc. D., and occasionally Phar. D., are conferred upon graduate students in pharmacy.

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF DENTISTRY.

The organization of 29 American universities and colleges now includes a school of dentistry, which offers to graduates of secondary schools a three-year course leading to the degree of D. D. S. or D. M. D. The curriculum provides first for a study of those elementary scientific subjects which form the groundwork of training in medicine: Anatomy, chemistry, bacteriology, physiology, and pathology. Instruction accompanied by extended clinical and laboratory practice in operative and prosthetic dentistry follows. The clinics of the best American dental schools furnish each student ample opportunity for practice in all branches of dentistry.

Although dentistry is a separate profession, and although training for it is quite fittingly carried on in a special professional school, nevertheless there is growing recognition of the fact that it is a branch of medical science. There has arisen in consequence a tendency to emphasize the affiliation of dental and medical education. Seven dental schools are now departments of medical schools. One State has already passed a law requiring that hereafter all practitioners of dentistry shall hold a medical degree. While there seems to be no immediate prospect that other States will take the same radical action, there is a very decided trend of opinion in the direction of lengthening the course in dentistry from three to four years. A number of dental schools are meeting this demand for further scientific training by offering postgraduate courses open to holders of degrees in dentistry and to others who have had practical experience.

It is appropriate to call attention to the excellence of American dental schools and clinics. The conspicuous success of American practitioners of dentistry is without doubt largely due to the splendid facilities for training in the profession that have been developed in the United States.

1 Quoted from the catalogue of the University of Wisconsin.

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF EDUCATION.

Among the important contributions which the United States has made to professional training may be counted the creation of special schools of education. Normal schools, organized principally for the training of elementary school teachers, have existed for a long time. They owe their origin to European experiments in the same direction. But the schools of education, whose aim is to prepare prospective high-school teachers, school principals, supervisors, and superintendents of city school systems, are relatively new and distinctly American institutions. Their establishment has come about because of the evident need of trained teachers and directing officers to carry on the work of public secondary education and the administration of school systems. With a few exceptions they have attained most vigorous growth in the States where the State university occupies a position of educational leadership. (But see especially the accounts of the organization of Columbia University, University of Chicago, and University of Missouri, Section VI, pp. 142–144, 171-172, 177-180.)

The typical school of education offers to graduates of secondary schools a four-year course leading to the bachelor's degree. The course usually combines three distinct elements: General training in the arts and sciences, specialization in one or two subjects which the candidate proposes to teach later, and instruction in the theory and practice of teaching.

Among the strictly professional subjects emphasis is laid on educational psychology, the history and philosophy of education, and the organization and management of schools. The best-equipped schools of education now provide opportunities also for students to observe skillful teaching and for practice teaching under supervision. There is a marked tendency toward extending the scholastic range of schools of education, and consequently increasing the amount of professional training demanded of secondary-school teachers. The addition of a fifth year to the course in education is a manifestation of this tendency. At the completion of the longer course, the degree of A. M. is conferred. In this way the school of education is gradually merging into the graduate school. It will probably not be long before the general cultural and informational subjects will be relegated to the college of letters, and the school of education will advance to the rank of a graduate school offering purely professional

1 A discussion of normal-school education lies without the scope of this bulletin. In general, it may be said that the entrance requirements of the best normal schools are similar to those of the colleges of arts and sciences. For high-school graduates the course is usually two or three years, with emphasis on the theory and practice of pedagogy. It often leads to a special degree. Any foreign student who is interested in normal-school training is urged to apply to the Bureau of Education for full information. 2 A great variety of bachelor's degrees are granted for work in education, e. g., B. Ped., B. Litt., A. B., B. S. in Education, and so on.

instruction to college graduates. Graduate courses in education leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy are now commonly offered by the graduate departments of the best universities.

THE OLDER PROFESSIONS.

The group of schools just described furnish training for those professions which are of comparatively recent origin or which have but lately risen to the dignity of special professional preparation. The professional beginnings of theology, law, and medicine, on the other hand, run back to the founding of the European universities. A certain superior prestige has attached to these older callings, even in a democracy like the United States. This has been reflected in the effort of the schools of theology, law, and medicine to enforce a higher standard of attainment for admission and for graduation than has yet been adopted by the other departments. They therefore may be said to form a second and more advanced order of professional institutes inside the general organization of the university.

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY, OR THE DIVINITY SCHOOL.

The oldest of all professional schools in the United States is the school of theology or the divinity school. Indeed, the college itself, as has been explained, was established to train an enlightened ministry for the Christian (Protestant) Church. Theological instruction has therefore always been a part of the curriculum of the oldest universities. They were themselves theological schools until they consigned theology to a special department, which has happened generally within the last century.

The modern theological school is either frankly a sectarian school, or else it has become what the uncompromising fathers of the Nation would have deemed impossible-a nonsectarian school of theology attempting to study "all matters connected with theology * * * in a spirit as free as that in which philosophy, history, and the classical literature are studied in our colleges." In mentioning the requirements and scope of the typical school of theology, it is understood that these schools are almost exclusively connected with denominational universities or else are entirely independent institutions.

1

The stronger schools of Protestant theology offer to graduates of a college of recognized standing, or to others who can show equivalent preparation, a three-year course leading to the degree of B. D. or S. T. B. The course is almost entirely professional, varying as to theological bias with the denomination which maintains the school. The entrance requirements for Catholic schools of theology are somewhat higher. (See Section VI, pp. 135-137, Catholic University of America.)

1 Quoted from the announcement of the Harvard Divinity School.

THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL OF LAW.

English and American legal systems differ radically from those of most other nations. Because of this fact, foreign students will probably not be attracted in any large numbers to American law schools for the purpose of fitting themselves for the immediate practice of their profession at home. Nevertheless, there is a growing conviction among lawyers and jurists that a knowledge both of English common law and the code systems of continental Europe and Latin America is very valuable to the legal practitioner of any country. The spirit and motives of a country are reflected in its laws. An acquaintance with the latter tends to broaden international sympathies. It is for this reason, as well as to complete the account of the component parts of the American university, that the law school is mentioned here. Attention is called especially to the excellent courses in jurisprudence, international law, and diplomacy offered by the following institutions: Columbia University, Yale University, George Washington University, Harvard University, and the Law School of the Tulane University of Louisiana. The legal system of the State of Louisiana is based on the Spanish system, and is therefore closely related to the systems of the Latin-American countries. Detailed accounts of the offerings of these institutions may be found on pages 133-135, 137, 138, 155, 156, 159-161, 177– 180.

The best American law schools now offer to students who have had at least two years of collegiate training a three-year course in common and statute law, leading to the degree of LL. B.

THE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.

No other professional schools connected with American universities have made such noteworthy and gratifying advances within recent years as the schools of medicine. There have been three conspicuous lines of progress: The growth of laboratory equipment through liberal State appropriations and private benefactions, the increase in hospital facilities, and the raising of standards of admission. As a result of these developments the best medical schools of the United States are now unsurpassed in physical equipment, and demand as thorough preparation for entrance and graduation as do those of other leading nations.

The high standards recommended by the American Medical Association and put into practice by the more progressive schools of medicine have been rendered permanent by the subsequent action of numerous State licensing boards which fix the educational preparation to be required of practitioners of medicine in their respective States.