so that they may best be tailored to students' interests and levels of development? In dealing with these questions little attention will be paid to the grade-level labels attached to the materials, since many of them could be used at levels other than those for which they are recommended. This is an issue to be resolved by reference to the perceived needs of individual teachers.

Teachers who favor emphasizing projects for individual students would find it useful to obtain all or many of the materials reviewed here and to have students use them as reference materials. The teacher could, of course, also use them to package their own choice of curriculum or enrichment activities.

Teachers responsible for courses or units which do not explicitly deal with the four principal subjects of the UNESCO Recommendation may wish to select a more general text that addresses a wider range of topics. For example, Oliver & Newmann's Public Issues Series/Harvard Social Studies Project covers U.S. history and interdisciplinary concerns; Weitzman & Gross' The Human Experience and Massialas & Zevin's Simulating Social Conflict cover world history and interdisciplinary concerns. McKeown's World Studies Inquiry Series focuses on world history and intercultural studies.

The three sets of materials that cover all the topics suggested by the UNESCO Recommendation, Stanford, Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations, Oliver & Newmann, Public Issues Series/Harvard Social Studies Project, and Fraenkel & Metcalf, Peacekeeping, are close to adequate in themselves and would simplify the choice. Each has a substantive and a pedagogic integrity that would be hard to match by experimenting with a patchwork of several materials. My own personal preference for a source on each of the topics of the UNESCO Recommendation would be Weitzman & Gross' The Human Experience for intercultural understanding or, for a shorter treatment, Fersh's Learning about Peoples and Cultures. For international cooperation, my preference would be Patterns of Human Conflict or Organizations among Nations and Diplomacy and International Law from the Oliver-Newmann series. My choice for dealing with peace issues would be Stanford's Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations. The best curriculum on human rights issues is The Struggle for Human Rights (Fraenkel & Metcalf series).

It is also possible to organize these materials according to developmental stages. Junior high school students, for example, are particularly concerned with relating to friends and relatives. Help with this topic can be found in Stanford's Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations; SRSS, Simulating Social Conflict and Patterns of Human Conflict. Senior high school students are more concerned with their own identity, or what they will hold as objects of fidelity (in Erik Erikson's terms). Teachers may therefore want to include materials which contain information on value clarification or descriptions of social movements and of

peace heroes. Nearly all the materials reviewed in this chapter cover some of these subjects.

Since Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral and cognitive development are currently very popular among curriculum specialists, social studies departments may want to organize their materials according to those stages. They can be reduced to three levels. The first, concern for personal gain and avoidance of harm, is most straightforwardly handled by Stanford's Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations; in Patterns of Human Conflict by the Center for War/Peace Studies; and in SRSS' Simulating Social Conflict. The second level, concern for accepted or conventional behavior here and abroad, is the focus of Weitzman & Gross' The Human Experience; McKeown's World Studies Inquiry Series; Ratcliffe's Great Cases of the Supreme Court and Great Issues of the Constitution; and Feldman's The Rights of Women. The third level, concern for higher principles, is dealt with in Stanford's Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations; the Oliver & Newmann series; Fraenkel & Metcalf, Peacekeeping; Millar's Focusing on Global Poverty and Development; and Naylor's Dissent and Protest.

Other methods might also be explored in designing social studies programs. One approach would consist of providing students with high-interest level materials on one or more topics of the UNESCO Recommendation. Most of the books reviewed in this chapter are interesting, but only the most suitable parts should be selected to initiate the program. Another approach, particularly for younger people, would draw on the biographic material found, for example, in Birch & Allen's Gandhi and in the selections from McKeown's World Studies Inquiry Series. A third approach would attempt to develop a sense of outrage in students concerning problems of peace and justice. Most of the materials reviewed in this chapter include selections that could be used to achieve this goal and to create a desire in students to learn more about a given topic.

It is also possible to organize this material along attitudinal lines. Thus, stereotyping and prejudice are dealt with in Stanford's Peacemaking: A Guide to Conflict Resolution for Individuals, Groups, and Nations; Fersh's Learning about Peoples and Cultures; King's Perception/Misperception: China/USA; and Shaver & Larkins' Analysis of Public Issues Program. Jingoism or excessive chauvinism is treated by Stanford and in the Oliver & Newmann and Fraenkel & Metcalf series, as well as by all of the materials on intercultural understanding: Massialas-Zevin's World Order; Moores' War and War Prevention, Birch & Allen's Gandhi; and Millar's Focusing on Global Poverty and Development. Aggressiveness is discussed in Peacemaking; Patterns of Human Conflict; Simulating Social Conflict; War and War Prevention; and Gandhi.

Many teachers limit their teaching for peace to trying to develop more amicable individuals. These teachers should also consider demonstrating that

socio-economic systems, not just aggressive individuals, can promote certain forms of violence and explore ways to change these defects. Materials that will help with this task can be found in Stanford, the Oliver & Newmann and Fraenkel & Metcalf series as well as in the books by King, Moore, Birch & Allen, and Millar.

V. CONCLUSION

In the field of international education, curricula have been strongly influenced by the trends of the new social studies movement. Our review also suggests that materials have been developed that are both interesting and understandable to a wide variety of students in terms of motivation and reading level. But, as we have seen, only three curricula have been found that integrate the four principal topics of the UNESCO Recommendation. Moreover, the coverage of international human rights issues is very limited, and the material concerning the United Nations and other international organizations is for the most part limited to structures rather than dynamic processes. Another need is for books that present the concept of globalism better than do existing materials.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Conclusions

The 1974 UNESCO Recommendation was drafted by government representatives of countries whose cultural backgrounds, educational systems and ideological perspectives mirror the diversity that exists among the nations and peoples of our planet. It is a consensus instrument that draws on a number of different educational philosophies and pedagogic methods to promote its goals. The significance of this Recommendation derives in large measure from the fact that in it the UNESCO Member States were able to agree on a comprehensive set of principles and policies governing international education. In the international arena, this agreement gives political legitimacy to efforts designed to promote global and human rights education.

The Recommendation can also provide American educators with important insights about attitudes and values that their peers in other parts of the world wish to see reflected in international education programs. Such programs can greatly benefit from intellectual cross-fertilization and transnational cooperation.

The progress in international education during the last several decades has been toward greater realism as evidenced by the articulation of more concrete goals. There seems to be a clearer perception of the reality of global interdependence and its relation to the national interest; an increased appreciation of the interrelationship of ongoing school programs with other parts of the social and educational systems; a growing recognition of the importance of the structure of the school as well as the content of curriculum; an awareness of the importance of teacher preparation as well as the production of appropriate curriculum materials; and, finally, a sharper focus on education as a means of enhancing the average citizen's motivation to participate in world affairs rather than being a passive observer.

Many of these concerns are reflected in the educational principles that the UNESCO Recommendation articulates. In the realization of these principles, human rights education becomes an integral part of international education; life-long education takes on a higher priority than schooling restricted to the years from 6 to 16; the value of interdisciplinary international education is recognized; and the importance of knowledge about the efforts of various international organizations in helping to solve local, national and world problems is stressed.

The emphasis on enhanced knowledge of international human rights efforts

in this Recommendation reflects a widely shared view about the importance of education in exploring the universality of mankind's yearning for human rights. (The scope of this universality is attested to by the many human rights instruments that the UN and other international and regional organizations have adopted.) Programs that fail to take account of the long-range political implications of the international human rights movement and the dynamics of the international processes and systems that give it increasing vitality clearly fail to respond to some of the most basic human needs and political issues of our times. This is one aspect of international education that American educators cannot afford to neglect.

Education has a tremendous but unrealized potential for influencing the international orientations of students. Action to improve education in this respect must take place in a variety of modes and at all levels of instruction beginning no later than the elementary school.

Laudable ideas about international understanding and peace represent only a small first step in a very complex process. Teachers need preparation which will help them to optimally utilize not only available materials but also the possibilities for meaningful interaction among students, and between students and teachers. The current practice of stressing factual material will need to be supplemented by a more dynamic issue-oriented discussion of the role that individuals, groups and nations play in today's world. An international and intercultural dimension should be an explicit and implicit part of classroom functioning. In this connection, it is worth emphasizing that the global perspective can be fostered through many subject areas without detracting from the mastery of prescribed material.

Instructional materials dealing with other countries will have to be improved and brought up to date and references to global problems included in many courses. Materials concerned with human rights need to be written since very little currently exists which meets the special needs of American students for a perspective on international human rights. One method, frequently adopted in UNESCO Associated School projects, is to choose a specific theme for study which has local, national and international ramifications. Human rights issues are particularly well-suited for this approach. But there are many other techniques to accomplish similar results.

Material which considers the dynamic processes of transnational interaction, analyzing the roles of governmental institutions (e.g., the UN, World Health Organization, Universal Postal Union) and private organizations (e.g., Amnesty International, multi-national corporations), is needed to supplement the current more static emphasis on the study of the structure of governmental organizations and the ceremonial activities of national leaders. The need is even more pressing for curriculum units which integrate all of these topics: the international protection of human rights, the international dimensions of local and national problems, the activities which comprise transnational interaction, and the process by which human beings come to understand the points of view