2. Instruction.-The value of a man lies not in knowledge but in will. But the will has its roots in the intellect, and therefore the sum of a man's intellectual acquisitions are of importance to his character. Instruction, therefore, comes before discipline, and they have this in common, that they are concerned with the future, whereas government has to do only with the present. The end of instruction is the production of virtue, but a nearer object is the production of many-sided interests. An entirely uneducated person cannot be virtuous; the brain must be first aroused. Instruction must be carried out first with energy, in order that the interest may be awakened; then with breadth, in order that the interest may be many-sided; and lastly, with unity of purpose, in order that the intelligence may not be distracted. The unity of the individual must not suffer by the manysidedness of the training he receives. The mind is capable of studying intensely one thing after another. But we must take care that these different acquirements do not merely rest side by side, but that they meet in the unity of the individual consciousness. Consciousness is the bond which holds these attainments firmly together; it is the middle point to which they all converge. A piece of knowledge thoroughly acquired is clear and intelligible; it becomes dim when compared with other knowledge which does not belong to it. Therefore for the sake of clearness we must keep our lines of knowledge separate. Again, complete self-consciousness is clear and undisturbed. A clear self-consciousness, combined with manysided acquirements, is the result of system, and is attained by method.

Herbart explains at length, and in the phraseology of his school, that all teaching to be effective must set the mind of the learner in independent motion.

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Perception of the matter taught is not enough; there must be apperception, that is, the learner must recognise it and assimilate it to his previous experience. He must add something of his own to the ideas presented to him by his instructor. Interests may be divided into six classes. 1. The empiric interest, by which we perceive the manifold phenomena which the world presents to us; 2, the speculative interest, by which we become devoted to the pursuits of some particular science; 3, the aesthetic interest, by which we attach ourselves to painting, sculpture, poetry, either lyric or dramatic, or music; 4, the sympathetic interest, by which we care for our family, friends, or countrymen, but not for the human race in general; 5, the social interest, by which we attach ourselves to political parties and cliques; 6, the religious interest, which induces us to become attached to particular dogmas or sects. Each of these interests, although good in itself, may become narrow and one-sided. This it is the duty of education to be on its guard against, and to prevent. Instruction may be either analytic or synthetic. We must make use of both these means. The pupil cannot reach by analysis the same wealth of attainment as he can by information imparted by the teacher. On the other hand, the mere imparting of information will not unite itself with the individual consciousness except in the most gifted natures, unless it be combined with the practice of analysis.

3. Discipline is concerned with the future of the pupil. It rests on hope, and shows itself in patience. It modifies government, which might perhaps effect its purpose sooner with greater severity; it modifies instruction in cases where this makes too great demands on the powers of the individual. It requires for its exercise tact and natural cheerfulness. Instruction and.

discipline taken together make up education. The object of discipline is to strengthen the character for the purposes of morality. Differences of character depend upon differences of will. When a man looks into his mind he finds something already there, certain tendencies, certain signs of strength and weakness, resulting from his natural disposition. This is the objective part of the character. But by the contemplation of his qualities arises a new will, which by distinction from the other should be called the subjective part of his character. Objective characters differ very greatly, and need for their improvement both stimulus and repression. These it is difficult to apply, and therefore the objective part of the character only attains with trouble a condition of harmony with itself. Such a harmony is produced by the operation of what Herbart calls will-memory. The subjective part of the will is gradually formed by the adoption of certain modes of action under similar circumstances; and as this part of the will develops, a man acquires for himself certain maxims and principles, which give rise to motives. To make these motives effectual often requires a struggle, and the strength or weakness of a character is shown by the more or less complete harmony between the objective and the subjective will. Morality resides in both. However well disposed a child may be, and however much his objective will may be full of good tendencies, we shall not secure the operation of these, and the exclusion of the bad tendencies which are to be found in every one, unless we support them by good principles, which belong to the subjective side of the will. These principles are produced by the æsthetic judgments, by which the child is led to distinguish between good and evil. Unless these judgments are clear, strong, and complete, the principles have not firm foundation in the

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pupil's mind, and are little better than words learnt by rote. On the other hand, if the aesthetic judgments of the will are interwoven with the whole of the interest which springs from experience, intercourse with teachers, and instruction, then a natural enthusiasm for virtue is produced, and this is strengthened by the logical cultivation of maxims and their systematic use in the course of life.

Discipline has three functions-to restrain, to deter mine, and to regulate. Restraining discipline springs from that memory of the will which is the opposite of the levity generally attributed to youth. The first manifestation of restraining discipline is government, and the obedience which it produces. The object of determining discipline is to secure that the pupil shall choose, and not the teacher in his name. Regulating discipline begins when the subjective character begins to show itself. It appeals to the child's reason, and tries to produce consistency of action. By these means we produce in the mind first æsthetic judgments of the will; that is, the habit of preferring good to evil as a matter of taste and choice, and lastly, reasoned morality, which is the final stage. It will be seen that the truth or falsehood of Herbart's principles of education must stand or fall with the truth or falsehood of his psychology. Whatever may be his ultimate influence, he deserves the credit of showing that a right philosophy of education can only be founded upon. a right system of psychology.

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CHAPTER XII.

THE ENGLISH PUBLIC SCHOOL.

No survey of educational theories, however brief, would be complete without some consideration of that form of education which is most essentially English, and which is regarded both by ourselves and by foreigners as a representation on a small scale of our national life. It would be impossible within these narrow limits to do anything more than to touch on certain aspects of the subject. It will be enough to show how our public schools came into being, what they were like at the time of the revival of learning, the principal changes which they have undergone since, and, in conclusion, to consider whether they can be accepted as the best type on which a comprehensive scheme of national secondary education should be moulded. For this purpose no schools need be mentioned except the three colleges of Winchester, Eton, and Westminster. They have this in common, that they have all arisen under the shadow of royal palaces. William of Wykeham, in founding his magnificent college, was only restoring to the royal city of Winchester a place of education which had flourished there from time immemorial. The school was opened in 1393, seven years after the opening of New College at Oxford. The two