and ideas, are endowed with sex, gender, life, and by the verb, act after the manner of man and woman, moving, rising, going to bed, trembling, running, loving, reproducing their kind; even entities—that is to say, qualities considered as apart from their real subject— light, heat, fecundity, beauty, pleasure, pain, vice and virtue, good and evil, took a personal existence, became the subject or the object of propositions implying action or will. It was forgotten that these words express only states, durable or ephemeral, of hot or lightgiving bodies, and the resultants of particular organisms; men saw in them the pre-existing cause of facts of which they are but the general or analytic expression; they invented virtualities, forces, illusory powers, which have no other origin than instinctive anthropism and the metaphorical essence of language. Numina, nomina. The noun created the gods; the verb developed myths.

CHAPTER IV.

THE COMPOUNDS—THE INDECLINABLE WORDS.

Ancient character of compound words-Rarity of the declension of the first term in a compound-Determinative compounds; compounds of dependence; possessive compounds: examples-Verbal compounds in French-Particles, conjunctions, prepositionsPlaced after the theme, they have produced the declension; placed before, they vary ad infinitum the meaning of verbs and nouns ; free, they are the ligaments of the sentence, and supply advantageously forgotten terminations-Notes on the indeclinables sa, saha, sama; abhi, àμpí, avá—Original or acquired diversity of the vocal organs.

IN our rapid sketch of the grammatical forms, we have never lost sight of the distant origin of the elements, either primitive, or the result of numerous contractions, which agglutination has combined into suffixed. themes, and inflexion has fused into declined and conjugated words, into nouns and verbs. This succession of the stages of language is more especially evident in a large class of terms called compound words. The framing of compound words is a familiar expedient of the isolating idioms, applied to themes already formed by agglutination, and finally polished by grammar. We are speaking, be it noted, of the most ancient and most correct of these compounds; analogy, local usage, individual fancy have here, as everywhere else, played their part, and disturbed an order which the rigorists among philologists believe they can trace among the smallest accidents of language.

"The characteristic of the true compound," says M. Bréal," is the union of two terms of which the first has no case-ending," even though it is in close grammatical relation, either of subject or object, of adjective or substantive, with the second. This absence of the sign of case justifies us in thinking that the formation of the word dates from an age anterior to grammar. Similar juxtapositions abound in Chinese, Japanese, and Malay. But when the declension was established it naturally affected the compounds. Sometimes it even penetrated to the first member of the double word, but usually the compound was regarded as a single whole, lacking only the termination which marked its value in the phrase.

The Latin compound pronouns show some traces of declension in the first term; thus we find eapse as well as ipsa for the feminine of ipse. But the chief example is furnished by certain Sanscrit copulatives called compound dvandvas, such as Mitra and Varuna, heaven and earth, night and day, in which the termination of the dual affects both nouns: Mitrá- Varunâu, Agni-Somáu (Agni and Soma), Indrá- Varundu, DyaváPrithivi, Pitara-Mátarâu, the father and mother; it even happens that one of the two names is not expressed, and that Mitrâ alone should be understood. to mean Mitra and Varuna. These constructions are peculiar to the Vedas. The very rare compounds of this nature in Latin and Greek inflect only the second term: the adjectives, Nevкo-μéλas, black and white, sacro-sanctus, sacred and holy, and the substantive suovitaurilia, the sacrifice of a pig, a sheep, and a bull. Perhaps, also, we may compare the formation of the words Græco-Roman, Austro-Hungarian, saltpetre, beetroot, aigre-doux, douce-amère, clair-obscur.

The most interesting classes of compounds are the determinative compounds, the compounds of dependence and the compounds of possession. In the first the two terms are related to each other as a noun, an adjective, or a verb is related to an adverb or an epithet. Sanscrit: maha-kula, great family; sat-suta, good son; ghana-cyama, black as a cloud. Greek: avdρorais, child-man, child who shows the courage of a man; кαкожάρ@evos, unhappy girl; Kaкodaiμwv, evil genius; Acropolis, the high town. Slav: Bielbog, Cernobog, white god, black god. In Latin: decemvir, semideus, peninsula, primordium (primum ordium), beneficium, benevolus, semijustus, altitonans. French can also form compounds of this nature: saupoudrer, colporter, maintenir, primevère, vif-argent, printemps, aubépine, sauf-conduit, sauve-garde, banlieue; but especially by the aid of adverbs and prepositions : bienveillance, bienfaisance, malappris, demi-heure, miclos, milieu, minuit, midi, contre-indication, surfait, surenchère, surtaxe, surhumain. But they abound especially in the Germanic languages. Gothic: jungalauths, young man; langamodei, from mods, now muth, longanimity. German: Vollmond, full moon; Grossthat, noble deed; Wundermann, wonderful man; kohlschwartz, coal-black; bildschön, fair as a picture; schneeweiss, snow-white; spiegelhell, sonnenhell, silberklar, clear as a mirror, as sunshine, as silver.

In the compounds of dependence, the first term is governed directly or indirectly by the second. Sanscrit: Brahmavit, he who knows Brahma; craddhapúta, purified by faith; pitrisadriça, like his father; naustha, which is contained in the vessel; Greek: μovoμáxos, he who fights single-handed; ἀνδροβρώς, ἀνδροδόκος, who devours, who welcomes men, тоρνEUTоXUρаσ Tidо

nyós, turner of lyres and shields; посavтip, footbath; ocάns, light-footed; avèpaceXpós, husband's brother; ἀνδροκάπηλος, seller of men; ἀνδροπεπής, proper for man; oikopúλač, guardian of the house; ἀργυρώνητος, bought with a price; φρενόληπτος, possessed in mind (mad); aкavoλn, wounded by a thorn; áλinkтýs, sea-swimmer; vwτopóρos, bearing on the back; ἀφρογενής, foam-born ; δειπνοκλήτωρ, he who invites to a feast. Most proper names in Sanscrit, Persian, and Greek are compounds of this class: Hippolytus, Hipparchus, Hippocles, Hippodamas, the looser of horses, the ruler of horses, famous for horses, the tamer of horses.

Latin makes great use of this artifice: remex, judex pontifex, carnifex, aurifex, aurifaber, aurifur, ignivomus, carnivorus, flammiger, opifer, dapifer, haruspex, augur, calicola, muricida, herbigradus. Such words have a double value; they show us attributive roots changed into true suffixes, and preserve for us, under their simplest form, roots which are often no longer found in an independent state. Fur exists in the sense of thief, and faber with the sense of smith, but it is not so with ex, he who pushes; spex, he who looks; dex, he who indicates or who says (a syllable which is almost effaced in the French word juge), or with fex, he who makes, with cola, he who cultivates or inhabits, or gur, who tries (au-gur, who consults birds; Sans. djush, Gr. yeuw, Goth. kiusan, to choose), the root of a disused verb, gusere, gurere, and of the substantive gustus; or finally with vorus, vomus, gradus, fer, ger, by means of which Latin can form an indefinite number of substantives and adjectives. Modern French has a certain number of words of this class, and uses with freedom the suffixes cole, vome, vore,