doctrines of Revelation, and substituted in their place the commandments of men, fallible and depraved as themselves? First they corrupted the word of God by human devices, and then became "disobedient, abominable, and to every good work, reprobate."

A corrupt church will ever be a persecuting church. Truth needs not to employ carnal weapons in its defence; it commends itself to the consciences of men, not by bonds and imprisonment, by fire and sword; but by persuasion, demonstration, and irresistible conviction. It is a sure sign of the weakness, as well as wickedness, of any cause, when her partisans find it necessary to have recourse to deeds of violence, instead of the "words of truth and soberness." It is not, however, a matter of surprise, that the church of Rome, which had rendered herself so odious by her exactions and usurpations,― which had bound on the necks of her deluded votaries so galling and oppressive a yoke-should have found it necessary to resort to anathemas and execrations, and subsequently to inquisitorial dungeons, racks, and flames, in order to keep those in subjection by terror, who were inclined to " come out of her, and be no longer a partaker of her sins." But the history of this, as well as of subsequent period, proves that persecution defeats its own end, and eventually subverts the cause it is intended to promote.

every

With what satisfaction should we hail the first appearance of these morning stars of the Reformation, which were faintly seen twinkling through the murky clouds and darkness that still overspread the moral horizon. We can scarcely conceive of the heroism it required to lift up a standard against the Roman pontiff, at a time in which he was contemplated as a god upon earth, and when thrones and dominions were subject to his sway; to oppose, like the venerable Grosteste, alone and unassisted, with his single arm, the man of sin, in all the plenitude of his power, and amidst all the triumphs of his ambition! How grateful is it to turn from the priestly domination of a Gregory, an Innocent, or an Urban, to trace the less splendid, but yet the resistless career of a Wickliffe, who, though occupying an humble station in the church of

Christ, laid a good foundation for the time to come, which all the enemies of the truth have been unable to shake! We have entered into his pious and benevolent labours: for we enjoy, in rich abundance, those sacred treasures of Revelation, which he brought forth from the dark recesses into which they had been thrown, by men who "hated the light, neither came to the light, lest their "deeds should be reproved."

It is not unworthy of remark, (and the remark will be more fully confirmed by facts hereafter to be recorded,) that every genuine revival of religion-every step towards the reformation of the christian church-has been either preceded or accompanied by a renewed attention to the Sacred Volume. It cannot be doubted, that it was the avidity with which this precious manuscript was read, when translated by Wickliffe into the vernacular tongue, that produced so rapid a spread of the Protestant tenets, and multiplied so prodigiously the followers of Wickliffe. This mighty operating principle will much more easily account for the conversion of half the nation to Lollardism in a few years, than merely the political influence of the duke of Lancaster who patronised it, or the energetic discourses of the rector of Lutterworth in its defence. To preserve, as well as to restore, the purity of christian faith, and worship, it is necessary that we adhere closely to the unerring standard of Divine Revelation. "To the law

" and to the testimony; if they speak not according to this rule, it is because there is no light in them."

ESSAY XII.

General View of the State of Literature in England during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries.

THERE were many causes which retarded the progress of knowledge, at the period to which this essay refers. Learning was then considered as the exclusive privilege of the ecclesiastical orders, and cultivated by

them alone. It seems scarcely to have entered into the mind of a layman of that age, that it was possible to acquire distinction in any other way than by military prowess and feats of chivalry. The superior ecclesiastics were also accustomed to exercise a vigilant censorship over the literary productions of their own order, and instantly suppressed such as opposed their prejudices, or tended to innovate, even in the least degree, on established opinions and usages. Every new discovery in science or philosophy subjected its inventor to the suspicion of necromancy and witchcraft, and consequently exposed him to the persecution of the ignorant multitude, by whom he was both feared and hated. These superstitious terrors were fostered rather than restrained by the clergy of that day, who not unfrequently sanctioned the accusations of heresy and demoniacal agency, brought against men of learning and science, and condemned their writings to the flames. But that which most of all tended to obstruct the course of free inquiry, and hinder the advancement of sound philosophical knowledge, was the supreme authority of Aristotle, and of the schoolmen his devoted admirers. The writings of that celebrated metaphysician had indeed been long known in England, but it was not till towards the commencement of the thirteenth century, that they acquired so complete an ascendency over the minds of men of erudition, as to reduce them to a state of intellectual thraldom. "Then," we are expressly told by an eminent scholar, who alone rose superior to the servile fashion of his age," then Aristotle was preferred to all other philosophers by men of learning, insomuch that whatever he had affirmed was received as oracular and divine; he possessed, indeed, as high authority in matters of philosophy, as the Apostle Paul liimself in those of theology and religion." The court of Rome apprehensive of the tendency of this philosophy, had at first opposed the general circulation of Aristotle's writings; and Pope Innocent III. had proceeded so far as to condemn to the flames, as heretical and dangerous; but afterwards, perceiving the error which had been committed, and convinced that the writings of Aristotle were more likely to enslave than to liberate the human mind, the Roman see

revoked its censures, and strenuously recommended the study of Aristotle, as next in importance to that of the Fathers..

Yet, notwithstanding all these unfavourable circumstances, literature was rapidly progressive in England during the government of the Plantagenets. It had, indeed, to make its way through many a murky cloud of ignorance and superstition; it could only penetrate through the chinks and crevices, which papal bigotry had been unable to close; but through these, it poured such a flood of light, that the ill-omened birds of darkness were alarmed, and hastily retired. Some of those men of learning, whose names will be shortly introduced, triumphed nobly over the ignorance and prejudices with which they were surrounded, and from which they had with difficulty emerged! and to their laborious researches posterity is indebted, for many important discoveries in the several departments, both of theoretical and practical science. The mathematics then began to be cultivated with great assiduity, and the successful study of that valuable branch of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the discovery of some of the most useful mathematical instruments now in use. The same remark may be applied to astronomy, a science which must ever be closely allied to the former. About this period, too, chemistry began to engage the attention of philosophical men, under the name of alchymy. The wildest and most romantic notions were at first entertained, even by the first scholars of the age, relative to this occult science. Some imagined that it would lead to the discovery of an universal medicine, by which disease and death would ultimately be banished from the world; and others, that it would afford the means of accumulating wealth to an incalculable amount, by transmuting all the baser metals into gold. But mistaken and visionary as these notions were, they inspired an ardour in the pursuit of knowledge, and induced such habits of patient and persevering research, that the general interests of science, were greatly promoted by them, and a foundation was laid for that vast fabric of experimental philosophy, which has been since reared.

It is necessary, however, to pass onward from this rapid sketch of the general state of literature at the above-mentioned period, to notice more particularly some of those individuals who contributed materially towards its advancement. A cursory view of their literary character, and a transient glance at their writings in the several departments of science which they occupied, is all that can be attempted in the present essay.

In theology, the most distinguished names are those of Grosteste, Duns Scotus, Occam and Wickliffe. The first and last of these have been already mentioned, in connexion with the religious character of the age in which they flourished; but they are of necessity introduced here, because they were as eminent for learning as for piety; they were far superior to their contemporaries in the important department of theological literature. Grosteste, bishop of Lincoln,, was born at Stow in Lincolnshire, towards the close of the twelfth century, of parents so obscure and necessitous, that he was sometimes obliged in his youth to beg his bread; but he discovered so remarkable a genius, even in his childhood, that the mayor of Lincoln was induced to patronise him, at whose expense he received his education in the Universities of Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris. Aided by the literary advantages which these justly celebrated seats of learning afforded, Grosteste became unquestionably the first scholar of his age. The general character of this learned and pious prelate has been thus sketched by an ancient historian" He was a bold reprimander both of the pope "and king-an admonisher of the prelates-a corrector "of the monks-an instructor of the clergy-a supporter "of the studious-a censurer of the incontinent-a scourge and terror to the court of Rome-a diligent "searcher of the scriptures, and a frequent preacher to "the people." His literary character has been thus highly rated by one, who must be acknowledged to have been a very competent and faithful witness, the celebrated Roger Bacon. "Nearly forty years of his life," says that philosopher, were devoted to the study of geometry, astronomy, optics, and other branches of mathematical learning, in all of which he greatly excelled;" and in another

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