Changes in Europe.-Two movements of stupendous magnitude have been steadily progressing during these years so pregnant with importance to England and the world. The first of these is that irresistible tendency of small communities to join themselves into nations, formed by those of the same race and speaking the same language, which had in the Middle Ages welded into one the different peoples of England and the principalities of France. The second current is one no less general, no less powerful, and no less beneficent; it is the marvellous advance towards Liberty and Reform which has stirred into new activity the oppressed peoples of the continent and led them onwards towards a higher and more prosperous life.

12

14

The mighty national tide first rose in Italy, which at the beginning of the Crimean War was split up into many small parts. Austria held Lombardy and Venetia 13 under the iron hand of a cruel despotism; Ferdinand II. trampled beneath his tyrant heel the people of Naples and Sicily; various other separate Duchies still further broke up the peninsula, and the name Italy was thus merely a geographical term destitute of all political significance. Now, thanks to the statesmanship of the illustrious patriot Cavour,15 the heroic sword of the fiery Garibaldi,16 and the gallant boldness of Victor Emmanuel, the unity of Italy 18 has been triumphantly established and the peninsula has entered upon a new career of prosperity and progress.

The same current has swept over Germany in this wonder-working generation. The progress there has not yet reached its ultimate goal, but has advanced with mighty strides. Here the names of the august king and emperor William,19 the iron-willed politician

Bismarck 20 (the presiding genius of German unity), and the unsurpassed strategist, General Von Moltke," form the triumvirate to whom their fellow-countrymen owe the magnificent triumphs of their Fatherland.22

Before these leaders began their great work, Germany like Italy was broken up into a great number of states, the two most powerful being Prussia and Austria.2 The first step towards unity was the taking of the two German provinces of Schleswig and Holstein 24 from Denmark. Two years later war broke out between Prussia and Austria themselves, in which the latter was crushed in a short campaign of seven days.25 This triumph for the Northern kingdom was followed by the exclusion of the conquered country from the German confederation, the temporary separation from the same union of the southern states of Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony; and the union of all the Northern principalities into one compact empire under the victorious William of Prussia.26

27

Four years later, there broke out the memorable war between Germany and France, in which the Northern Empire was joined by all the Southern States. It was soon made manifest that the patriotism and bravery of the French were quite unable to meet the perfect organisation of their invaders and the unrivalled skill of the opposing general. France was accordingly completely defeated,28 its emperor lost his throne, Paris was taken, and the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were once more added to their empire by the victors. The Southern States now willingly joined their Northern brethren, and the long-delayed unity of Germany became an accomplished fact.

29

One European race, the Slavs,30 is still broken up

into various communities. But they, too, have been mightily moved by the spirit of unity and freedom. The movement first manifested itself in outbreaks of the subject provinces of Turkey. The dreadful cruelty with which the rising in the Christian region of Bulgaria was suppressed by its Mohammedan rulers caused a wave of wrath to sweep over Europe; and Russia, as the greatest Slav power, stepped forward as the champion of its tortured and enslaved kinsmen.

32

31

After a desperate struggle, in which the Turks. fought very bravely against overwhelming odds, Russia triumphed. The provinces north of the Balkans were then freed from their oppressors; so that of the European peoples which had once been enslaved by the Turk, only four millions are now left under its rule.3 They too shall yet be free: for the longing of peoples of the same race to live in unity together, 'safe from interference of external force,' shall yet be satisfied; and a free Slav people may yet be able to stand side by side on equal terms with united Germany and undivided Italy.

33

Progress at Home and Abroad. The second great movement mentioned at the beginning of the preceding section of this lesson-that of liberty and reform-has been steadily progressing not only in our own island but on the continent of Europe. In France a republic seems to be at last firmly established, and her free people are advancing rapidly under the stimulating influence of self-government; Italy rejoices in a constitution framed on the model of our English system, and representative institutions have been formed throughout Austria.34

Prussia still makes the maintenance of her military organisation supreme over questions of popular liberty,

and Russia is practically an unlimited despotism: but in the former country education is too widely spread to allow arbitrary rule long to prevail; and in Russia, serfdom has been abolished for nearly a generation, and the dawn of popular liberty is beginning to brighten the Eastern sky.

35

The greatest burden which Europe has at present to bear is the enormous armed force kept up by each of its separate countries. Hundreds of millions of pounds. are every year wasted on armaments; and millions of men, withdrawn from the ranks of industry, require to be supported by the labours of those left to work. The only great country in the world which does not maintain any huge military establishments is the United States of America; and many believe that the advantage that this gives her various industries will so enable her to surpass the European countries in trade, that they will in time be forced to disband their overgrown armies and enter on a career of peaceful rivalry.

At home, the movement begun in 1832 has been as powerful as ever. Thus, in 1867 a new Reform Bill 36 widened the basis of our electoral system, and granted to thousands of our noble artisans their just influence in the representation of their country; and four years afterwards voters were protected from interference in the exercise of their rights, by an Act 37 enabling them to vote with safety according to their convictions. Ireland, too, has been greatly benefitedthe whole attention of government and people being centred upon her needs and wishes. The Protestant Episcopal Church there, which represented a very small minority of the people, has been disestablished and disendowed; a Land Bill 39 has given security of tenure

38

and moderate rents to the tenants, and may be said to have made them part-proprietors of the soil with their landlords. Unhappily, a section of that unfortunate people has not received these concessions in the spirit in which they were made, and great confusion still prevails.40 Finally, a grand system of national education has been devised: no parent, however brutal and ignorant, is now allowed to deprive his child of the blessings of knowledge; and, where necessary, School Boards, elected by the people, have been appointed to watch over that training of the young which is producing results of priceless value to our country.

Disraeli and Gladstone.-Two men have been preeminent in their influence on the later history of this island; one of these has

gone from us, the other still lives-ever-active in the service of England. Benjamin Disraeli 41 has been said to be the "most remarkable man of our time." With no advantages save those which his own talent gave him, and with many disadvantages (not the least of which was that he was of Jewish

origin), he raised himself

BEACONSFIELD.

He

to be for many years the first man in England. began life as an extreme Liberal, but was soon attached to the Conservative side. He was not at first popular in Parliament; but his power of wit and sarcasm, his happy turns of expression, and his striking and in