established by the Eolians, Ionians, and arians; their commerce soon exceeded that of the parent states; and in them were produced the first of Grecian poets, Hómer and Alcæ'us; and the first of Grecian philosophers, Thales and Pythag'oras.

The EOLIANS, after the conquest of the Peloponnésus, settled for a time in Thrace, whence they passed over, after the lapse of a generation, to Asia (*B. c. 1124), and occupied the coasts of Mýsia and Gária giving to the strip of land they colonized the name of Æólis. They acquired possession, also, of the islands of Les'bos, Ten'edos, and the cluster called the Hecatonnési (hundred islands). Twelve cities were erected on the mainland by the Eolians, of which the chief were Cymé and Smyr'na. The latter city was destroyed by the Lydians (*B. C. 600), and was not restored until four hundred years later, when it became a flourishing Macedonian colony. The Æolian cities maintained their independence until the age of Cy'rus, when those on the mainland were subdued by the Persians. When Athens acquired supremacy by sea, the insular states were forced to submit to her authority, and were in general ruled with great severity.

The IONIAN migration took place some years after the Eolian, about B. c. 1044. It was the largest that ever left Greece; and fortunately it is that, with whose details we are best acquainted. It originated in the abolition of royalty at Athens: the sons of Códrus reluctant to live as private individuals, declared their design of leading a colony into Asia: they were readily joined by the Ionian exiles from the northern Peloponnésus, who were straitened for room in At'tica, and by large bands of emigrants from the neighboring states, actuated by political discontent, or the mere love of change. They were supplied liberally with ships and munitions of war. They pursued their voyage to Asia Minor, and landed on the coast south of 'olis. After a long series of sanguinary wars, the native barbarians resigned their lands to the intruders; and the Ionians acquired possession of the whole of the valuable district between Milétus and Mount Sip'ylus.

The Ionians then began to erect cities; they established twelve, united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy; viz., Eph'esus, Ery'thræ, Clazom'enæ, Colophon, My'us, Milétus, Priéne, Phocæ'a, Leb'edos, Sámos, Téos, and Chíos, of which the last three were insular stations. Milétus was the chief of the Ionian colonies: but Eph'esus was the most renowned of the cities.

All the Ionian cities were united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy. Deputies from the different states met, at stated times, in a temple of Nep'tune, erected on the headland of Mycále, which they named Helicónean, from Helíce, the chief of their ancient cities in the northern Peloponnésus. Here they deliberated on all matters that affected the Pan-Ionian league; but the council never interfered with the domestic government of the several cities. They also celebrated festivals and public games, which rivalled in magnificence those of Greece. In the midst of their prosperity, the Ionian cities became engaged in a long and arduous struggle with the Lydian kings, which continued almost without intermission until both were absorbed in the rising greatness of the Persian empire.

Neither the extent nor progress of the Dorian colonies could com

pare with those we have just described. Limited to a narrow and not very fruitful territory, their confederation always continued in a state of feebleness; and, with the exception of Halicarnas'sus, which, at a comparatively recent age, became the capital of an opulent monarchy, and the isle of Rhodes, whose daring navigators rivalled those of the most potent commercial states, there is scarcely a Dorian state that rose above mediocrity.

The DORIANS, after the conquest of the Peloponnésus, meditated new acquisitions; but, being checked by the Athenians at Meg'ara, they proceeded in detached bands to the coast of CARIA, and to the islands of Cos and Rhodes. It is impossible to assign the exact age of these migrations; but they were certainly later than the Ionian and Æolian; they appear also to have been conducted without any definite plan, and to have taken place at very different times. The six cities forming the Doric confederation, called Hexapolis, were Halicarnas'sus and Cnídus on the Carian peninsula, Cos in the island of the same name, and Halys'sus, Camírus, and Lin'dus, in the island of Rhodes.

The Dorians submitted without a struggle to the Persian power, and seem to have made no effort to regain their independence.

SECTION VIII.-The Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace, Macedon, &c.

MOST of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Propon'tis, the Euxine sea, and the Pálus Mæótis, were founded by the citizens of Milétus between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. That city, whose commerce occupied four harbors, and whose naval power amounted to eighty or a hundred galleys of war, owed its greatness to its possession of the northern trade; and to secure this lucrative commerce, it planted several colonies, all of which became prosperous marts of trade. Their commerce was not confined to the seacoasts: their merchants penetrated into southern Russia, and advanced even beyond the Caspian to the countries which now form the kingdoms of Khíva and Bokhára. The Phocæans shared the honor of founding these important colonies; but they were too much devoted to the western trade to waste their energies on the northern; and it may be generally stated, that the settlements on the Euxine depended chiefly on Milétus.

On the Propon'tis adjoining the Hellespont, stood Lamp'sacus, originally founded by some Phocæans, who obtained a grant of the site of the city from one of the native princes whom they had assisted in war. It was afterward occupied by the Milesians, under whom it became a place of great wealth and extensive commerce.

Cyz'icus, erected on an island joined by bridges to the Asiatic coast, was a very ancient city; it is said to have been colonized in the earliest ages by the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi, and afterward by the Argonauts. About B. c. 751, it was occupied by the Milesians, who at the same time took possession of the neighboring island of Proconnésus (Marmora). Cyz'icus, in a late age, under the dominion of the Romans, became one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in Asia.

Opposite to Cyz'icus on the Thracian coast, was Perin'thus, at a la

ter age called Heracleía, founded by a Samian colony; on the European side of the Thracian Bosphorus was Byzan'tium (Constantinople); and over against it, on the Asiatic coast, Chal'cedon (Scutari), both colonized from Meg'ara.

The first Greek city on the Black sea was Heracleía, on the Bithynian coast, which appears to have been successively colonized from Meg'ara and Milétus.

Sinópe, in Paphlagonia, was the most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine se a. Amísus,in Pon'tus, was, next to Sinópe, the best harbor on the Euxine sea. After having been long subject to Milétus, it was seized by the Athenians in the age of Per'icles, and its name changed to Peira'æus. During the days of its prosperity, Amísus is said to have become the parent of a colony that soon surpassed itself in importance, Trap'ezus (Trebisonde).

On the eastern coast of the Euxine were Phásis, Dioscúrias, and Phanagória. In the Macedonian age, Phanagória became the capital of the Greek cities on the Asiatic side of the Bos'phorus: its prosperity was owing to its being the chief mart for the slave-trade, which has always prevailed in the countries round the Caúcasus, and also to its being the staple for the goods brought from central and southern Asia by the route of the Caspian sea and the Oxus.

The Milesians formed several establishments in the Tauric Chersonese (Criméa), and wrested the greater part of that peninsula from its barbarous inhabitants. The city of Panticapa'um was the most important, and probably the most ancient, of these settlements. It became the capital of the little Greek kingdom of the Bos'phorus, and continued to maintain its independence until, in the Roman age, it was seized by Mithridátes the Great, who laid there the foundations of his subsequent power.

The coasts of Thrace and Macedon were covered with Greek colonies, principally derived from Corinth and Athens.

On the coasts of Africa was the celebrated Greek city of Cyréne, long the commercial rival of Carthage, founded by a Dorian colony from the island of Théra (B. c. 651), in obedience to the directions of the Delphic oracle. The government was at first monarchical, the crown being hereditary in the family of Bat'tus, the founder. About B. c. 450, royalty was abolished, and a republic formed; but the citizens of Cyréne never were able to form a permanent constitution; and their state continued to be rent by factions until it was annexed to the Egyptian kingdom, in the age of the Ptolemies.

The history of the Greek states in Sicily and southern Italy being closely connected with the Roman wars, will be found in the chapters on Italy.

CHAPTER X.

HISTORY OF GREECE,

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. FROM B. C. 500 TO B. c. 336.

SECTION I.-The First Persian War.

FROM B. C. 500 To B. c. 490.

WHEN Daríus Hystas'pes invaded Scythia, he intrusted the guard of the bridge of boats that he had constructed over the Danube to the Greeks of Asia and Thrace, who had been so recently brought under subjection to the Persians. Many of those were anxious to recover their freedom, and they deliberated seriously on the propriety of destroying the bridge, and leaving the Persians to perish without resource in an inhospitable desert. The proposal was strenuously advocated by Miltiades, the king or tyrant, as he was called, of the Thracian Chersonese; but he was opposed by Histia'us, the tyrant of Milétus, whose selfish counsels finally prevailed. Miltiades retired to Athens, his native city, where he subsequently rose to the highest honors; Histiæ'us accompanied the monarch he had saved to the court of Persia. But the gratitude of absolute princes is not permanent: Histiæ'us soon found that the very magnitude of his services exposed him to danger; and he concerted with his nephew, Aristag'oras, a revolt, which included all the Ionian colonies. In order that the insurrection should have any reasonable prospects of success, it was necessary that it should be supported by the Grecian states; and to engage this assistance, Aristag'oras came to Lacedæ'mon.

Being repulsed at Spar'ta, Aristag'oras proceeded to Athens, where he was more generously received (B. c. 500). Twenty ships were prepared for him with all convenient speed; and these being reinforced by five more from the little state of Eret'ria, in the island of Eubœ'a, sailed over to the harbor of Milétus, and commenced the war. The allies were at first very successful. Sar'dis, the wealthy capital of Lydia, was taken and plundered; but Aristag'oras had not the talents of a general; the fruits of success were lost as soon as won; the several divisions of the army quarrelled and separated; and the Asiatic Greeks were left to bear the brunt of the vengeance of their merciless masters. Milétus was taken, its walls razed, and its citizens massacred; several minor cities suffered similar calamities. Aristag'oras

fled to Thrace, where he was murdered by the barbarians; and Histiæ'us, after a vain attempt to escape, was crucified at Sar'dis by command of the Persian satrap.

Daríus next turned his resentment against the Greeks, who had aided this revolt; he sent ambassadors to demand homage from the Grecian states, especially requiring the Athenians to receive back Hip'pias, their exiled tyrant. All the states, insular and continental, except Athens and Spar'ta, proffered submission; but those noble republics sent back a haughty defiance, and fearlessly prepared to encounter the whole strength of the Persian empire.

Daríus, having prepared a vast armament, intrusted its command to his son-in-law Mardónius, who soon subdued the island of Thásus, and the kingdom of Macedon (B. c. 493). But his fleet, while doubling Mount A'thos, was shattered by a violent storm; three hundred vessels were dashed against the rocks, and twenty thousand men are said to have perished in the waves. Mardónius returned home to excuse his disgrace, by exaggerating the cold of the climate, and the dangers of the Ægean sea.

A second and more powerful armament was prepared (B. c. 490), over which Daríus placed his two best generals, Dátis, a Mede, and Artapher'nes, a Persian nobleman. The fleet passed safely through the Cyclades, and arrived at the island of Eube'a. Thence the Persians crossed the Eurípus, and, by the advice of the exiled Hip'pias, encamped with an army said to exceed five hundred thousand men on the plains of Mar'athon, within forty miles of Athens.

The Athenians could only muster an army of ten thousand citizens, and about double that number of slaves, who were armed in this extremity. The little city of Platæ'a sent an auxiliary force of a thousand men; but the Spartans, yielding either to superstition or jealousy, refused to send their promised aid before the full of the moon. Miltiades dissuaded his countrymen from standing a siege, because the immense host of the Persians could completely blockade the city, and reduce it by starvation. He led the army to Marathon; but when the Persian hosts were in sight, five of the ten generals, commanding jointly with himself, were afraid to hazard a battle; and it was not without difficulty that Callim'achus was prevailed upon to give his casting vote in favor of fighting. But when the bold resolution of engaging was adopted, all the generals exerted themselves to forward the wise plans of their leader (B. c. 490).

Miltiades formed his lines at the foot of a hill that protected his rear and right flank; his left was secured by an extensive marsh, and his front protected by trunks of trees, strewn for some distance, to break the force of the Persian cavalry. The Athenian citizens occupied the right wing, the Platæans the left, while the raw levies of slaves were stationed in the centre. Dátis saw the advantages of this position; but confident in his superior numbers, he gave the signal for battle. The Greek centre was broken at the moment that the two wings had routed the divisions opposed to them: this had been foreseen; and Miltiades directed the victorious wings to attack the Persians rushing incautiously through the broken centre on both flanks. Surprise is fatal to an oriental army; in a few minutes the Asiatics