MUTTERINGS OF SEPARATION.

Talk of separation bobbed to the surface repeatedly during the interval of eighty or more years between Panama's independence from Spain, and the secession movement of 1903. The tie that bound her to the Granadine Confederation, and later to Colombia had always been a galling one. It was continually a game of give and take, with Panama in the charity role.

The people of the Isthmus were not long in sizing up the situation, and as early as 1827 started a separation movement, which had for its aim annexation with Great Britain. The prime movers of this, set forth the fact that the commercial relations of Panama with the interior departments of Colombia amounted to but little; natural barriers preventing free intercourse, and complained that the inhabitants of the southern part of the republic treated the people of the Isthmus as foreigners and preyed on their commerce. Before the movement had gained much headway however, the patriot, Bolivar stepped into the breach and pacified the secessionists.

The next attempt at separation occurred on November 18, 1840 when the people of the city of Panama, under the leadership of Col. Tomas Herrera arose en masse and proclaimed their independence. Inasmuch as the civil head of the Isthmus, Dr. Carlos de Icaza, was himself in sympathy with the movement, no opposition was offered by the authorities.

Dr. Rufino Cuervo, at that time Minister of Colombia at Quito, hearing of what was going on in Panama sent Col. Anselmo Pineda and Dr. Ricardo de la Parra there with the object of discouraging the movement, and to reincorporate the Isthmus into the Granadine Confederation. The commissioners promised a much better adminis

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tration of affairs in which Panama was concerned, and full amnesty for those connected with the separation plot. In view of the fact that these promises were backed by guarantees from Dr. Cuervo, Gen. Juan José Flores, and the President of Ecuador, the people of the Isthmus entered into a new treaty on December 31, 1841, by which Panama once more became a member of the New Granadian League.

In March 1842. Domingo Caicedo, then Vice-President of New Granada, repudiated this treaty, claiming that Dr. Cuervo and Dr. Parra had exceeded their powers, and in the same year the Granadian Congress repudiated the law granting amnesty to the Panameños. Many of the latter to avoid persecution were forced to expatriate themselves.

Another agitation for independence was started in 1860, fostered by José de Obaldia, then Governor. At this period New Granada was badly disorganized, having just been racked by civil war, which resulted in the pro

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Mutterings of Separation.

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claiming of Tomas Cipriano Mosquera, dictator. Obaldia thought the time propitions and announced his intentions to the Bogota Government, advising that it was proposed to set up an establishment under the protectorate of either the United States, France or England. At this juncture, Obaldia was succeeded by Santiago de la Guardia, as Governor, and the latter neglected to follow up the advantage. Mosquera by this time had gotten his political affairs straightened out somewhat, and turned his attention to the Istl mus. In 1861, he sent a deputy to Colon to meet the Isthmians and arrange a new treaty which provided for more promises and guarantees, but in less than a year Mosquera saw fit to repudiate the agreement.

On Feb. 27, 1855, the Government of New Granada conferred on the Isthmus, the title of "State of Panama," and the rights and privileges of a sovereign state, a distinetion not shared in by the other provinces of the Republic. It is doubtful however, if this act ever resulted in any benetit, direct or indirect, to the people of Panama.

IN THE THROES OF REVOLUTION.

The political history of the Isthmus is marked by many a wound and many a scar, but its troubled waters has been stirred so often in times past that the breaking out of a revolution ceased to excite more than passing comment abroad. Many of these internecine struggles were insignificant in their nature and of short duration, but the war of 1900 to 1902 was of an entirely different character and constituted the most sanguinary epoch in the annals of the Isthmus.

The trouble first started in the interier of Colombia, and before hostilities were finally suspended, the flame of

revolt had spread the length and breadth of the country. For more than fifteen years the ruling party in Colombia had been the Conservative or clerical party as it was sometimes called. In 1898 this party lost the reins of government through a deflection from its ranks of a group of men calling themselves Nationalists. The Nationalists favored a milder course toward the Liberals and elected Dr. Manuel Sanclemente, President. Meanwhile the Conservatives were not idle, and the following year succeeded in having Sanclemente deposed by "golpe de estado" (1). This brought the Conservative party back into power with José M. Marroquin, Vice-President under Sanclemente, at its head.

The Liberal party at this period is said to have constituted about seventy per cent. of the entire population, exclusive of the uncivilized Indians. Many years before when in power, this party had incurred the enmity of the church by expelling the Jesuits and confiscating church property for the use of state and education. Since then, to check the party's growth and to stamp out liberal tendencies, it is alleged that the offices of the church were frequently used. Many are said to have been excommunicated; the marriage service and rites of burial refused, and their children denied admission to the schools. Furthermore they were not entitled to the privileges of the courts, and often awoke in the morning to find their property confiscated and an order of arrest confronting them. They were permitted no representation in local or federal offices, nor in Congress, with the notable exception of Gen. Rafael Uribe-Uribe, a man of uncommon intelligence and a natural born leader whose personal following was too strong to be easily thrust aside.

Disaffection Reaches Panama.

It only needed a decided incentive at this stage to plunge the country in'o a civil war, and the incentive was

(1) A sudden act performed by the State for state reasons.