when we base our judgment on the general character of the several epistles. When we do so we are led to the conclusion that this epistle marks the transition from Romans to Colossians and Ephesians. While the former resembles it in many points both verbal and doctrinal,1 we discern in the two latter a new phase of doctrine of which scarcely any trace can be found in the Epistle to the Philippians.

But while Philippians was probably anterior in date to the three others, the effects of the apostle's preaching in Rome, as stated in i. 13, as well as the account of Epaphroditus' mission to that city, with its attendant circumstances (ii., iv.), imply that some considerable time had elapsed since the apostle's arrival. We may therefore assign this epistle to the early part of 62 A.D., and the three others to the close of the same year or the beginning of 63 A.D.2

"THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE
""
PHILIPPIANS

Who wrote it.-The Pauline authorship of this epistle is generally admitted. It is a characteristic outpouring of the apostle's tender, affectionate, and devout heart; the circumstances which gave rise to it come out in the course of the epistle in a casual and unaffected manner; and corroboration of them is found in the Book

1 Cf. Phil. i. 3-8, Rom. i. 8-11; Phil. i. 10, Rom. ii. 18; Phil. iii. 4, 5, Rom. xii. I; Phil. iii. 9, Rom. x. 3; Phil. iii. 10, 11, Rom. vi. 5. In a general sense the similarity of these two epistles as contrasted with Colossians and Ephesians may be accounted for by the former being addressed to Churches in Europe, the latter to Christians of Asia Minor.

2 It is possible the apostle may have written other letters during his imprisonment. His anxiety about his own prospects did not prevent him from engaging in active labour among the soldiers and others brought into contact with him, or from superintending by means of his colleagues and envoys the various Churches which looked to him for guidance. In this connection the following names occur in the epistles-Luke, Timothy, John Mark, Demas, Jesus Justus, Epaphroditus (of Philippi), Tychicus (of Ephesus), Epaphras (of Colossæ), and Aristarchus (of Thessalonica).

of Acts and elsewhere.

It is difficult to imagine what purpose a forger could have had, or how he could ever have achieved success, in fabricating a letter of such a distinctly personal character.

With regard to external evidence, traces of expressions used in the epistle may be found in several writers at the end of the first and at the beginning of the second century. A little later we find increasing evidence of the epistle's recognition as an apostolic work, until at the close of the second century its general acceptance in the Church is put beyond doubt. One writer (Tertullian, about 200 A.D.) states that it had all along been read and acknowledged by the Church of Philippi.

To whom written.-"To all the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons." Philippi was the first place at which St. Paul preached the Gospel in Europe-in the course of his second missionary journey, 52 A.D. A very full and graphic account of this visit is given by St. Luke, who along with Timothy and Silas accompanied the apostle on the occasion (Acts xvi. 11-40.) The city lay a few miles inland from the coast of Macedonia, at the confluence of Asiatic and European life on the great Egnatian highway, where there was a pass in the mountain barrier stretching north and south. Founded on an ancient site by Philip, king of Macedonia (who named it after himself) in the middle of the fourth century B. C., the city was raised to the dignity of a Roman colony by Augustus (42 A.D.) in commemoration of his great victory over Brutus and Cassius gained in the immediate vicinity. As a colony it became politically "a miniature likeness of Rome"; and the high sense of Roman citizenship which pervaded the community may be seen at several points in Luke's narrative (Acts xvi. 20, 21, 35-39) as well as in allusions in the epistle (i. 27, R.V. margin; iii. 20, R.V.) There were comparatively few Jews in the place, as we may infer from the want of any regular synagogue and the absence of any Hebrew name in the list of converts. Only three members of the Church are specially men

tioned in the account of Paul's visit. These are a proselyte of Asia, a Greek, and a Roman-representing the catholic nature of the Church which Paul had come to establish,-representing, too, the liberal and liberating spirit of the Gospel, two of them being women, and one of the two a slave, the absolute property of her master. The consecrating influence of the Gospel on family relations is brought out here for the first time in the history of the Church,-Lydia's "household" being baptized with her, and the jailor rejoicing greatly "with all his house." The prominence assigned to women both here and in the neighbouring Churches of Thessalonica and Beroa (Acts xvi. 13; Acts xvii. 4, 12; cf. iv. 2, 3) is in harmony with what we know from other sources to have been characteristic of Macedonian society.

Paul's visit to Philippi was memorable not only for the converts whom he made but also for the sufferings he endured and the signal deliverance that was granted to him. The Church which he then formed excelled all others in its devoted attachment to his person and its repeated acts of generosity to him. This generosity he accepted, contrary to his ordinary rule, because of his perfect confidence in the sincerity and affection of the donors.

We hear of two subsequent visits which the apostle paid to Philippi-in 57 and 58 A.D. (Acts xx. 2, 6). His experience on these occasions, as well as in other communications which he held with them, had done much to cheer his heart. In their contributions for the relief of the poor saints at Jerusalem they appear to have contributed, in common with the other Macedonians, even "beyond their power "in "much proof of affliction " and "deep poverty" (2 Cor. viii. 1-4).

Where and when written.-At Rome, 61-62 A.D. (see pp. 84-85).

Character and Contents. Of all St. Paul's epistles this is the most benign, breathing a spirit of the warmest sympathy and approval. At chap. iv. I he addresses the Philippians as 66 my brethren beloved and longed for, my joy and crown." In this respect it sur

passes even 1 Thess., which it resembles not a little in its gentle and confiding tone.

Without any assertion of apostolic authority, it begins with a very full thanksgiving for the tokens of grace which the Philippians had so generally manifested since the Gospel was preached among them. These tokens led the apostle to cherish a confident persuasion that they would advance more and more in the Christian life and realise a fulfilment of his constant prayer on their behalf (i. I-II).

He then adverts to his own circumstances, and refers to the salutary influence of his bonds in witnessing for Christ among the imperial guard and in the city gener ally, while his friends were stimulated by his example, and even his enemies the Judaisers were provoked to greater activity on his account. The mutilated gospel taught by these he regards as better than none for those who know not Christ; and instead of troubling himself about their opposition to him, he will rather take comfort from their labour, feeling assured that all his trials will work together for good. He is prepared either for life or for death as the will of the Lord may be, although he has a strong impression that he will be delivered and permitted to visit Philippi once more (i. 12-26). In any case he would appeal to them to be firm and united in defence of Christ's cause-counting it a token of salvation that they are permitted "not only to believe on him, but also to suffer in his behalf" (i. 27-30). He would counsel them to avoid all rivalry and self-seeking, and to cultivate that humility which was so signally displayed by the Lord Jesus Christ and was attended in His case with such glorious results. He exhorts them to work out their salvation with fear and trembling as in God's presence and with God's help, striving to walk worthy of their calling and to justify the apostle's boast concerning them. They might rest assured that he was as devoted to their interests as ever, and was ready, if need be, to give up his life on their behalf. He hoped soon to send to them their mutual and trusty friend Timothy with

news of his prospects, and in return he hopes to hear of their state before he visits them in person. Meanwhile he is sending to them Epaphroditus, the messenger of their bounty, who has been of invaluable service to him since his arrival, but whose recent illness and anxiety on their account render it expedient that he should return to Philippi (ii.)

At this point (iii. 1) it would seem as if the apostle had intended to draw to a close-probably by a renewal of his counsels to unity and brotherly love. But from some cause-perhaps owing to his being interrupted by fresh news of the Judaisers-he launches into a new subject, warning his converts against the infatuation of those who would put their confidence in Jewish rights or privileges, and avowing his own renunciation of all such claims, in view of the new life which comes from fellowship with the risen and exalted Christ. That life cannot be realised without strenuous and persevering effort in the path of duty. He would therefore caution them against the gross abuse of the doctrines of grace which some are guilty of, and he bids them take his own life as an example of the Christian course. In chap. iv. he returns to the subject of the dissensions among them, and refers to two women of influence in the Church whom he is anxious to see restored to terms of friendship. For this purpose he invokes the aid of Epaphroditus ("true yoke-fellow") and other leading members of the Church. He adds several exhortations of a general nature that are among the most beautiful precepts in the New Testament (iv. 4-9). In conclusion, before sending the final salutations, he thanks the Philippians warmly for the renewal of their bounty towards him, which he welcomes not so much on his own account as for the evidence it affords of their devotion to the Gospel. For their kindness to him God will yet reward them with the higher treasures that are hid in Christ Jesus (iv. 10-23).

It is worthy of note that the "bishops and deacons" specially addressed in the opening of the epistle (i. 1) represent the only two classes of local Church office-bearers