profound work ever written." Calvin said of it that "it opened the door to all the treasures in the Scriptures "; while Luther pronounced it "the chief book of the New Testament, and the purest Gospel."

As already mentioned, it bears a striking resemblance to Galatians (written a short time before it) not only in individual words and phrases, but in the general drift of its teaching with regard to the superiority of the Gospel to the Law. It is, however, more dispassionate in tone, being less personal in its character, and containing a more full and comprehensive treatment of the subject.

It may be said to embody the results of the recent controversy with the Judaisers, stated in a logical and systematic form, and at the same time with such moderation and caution as was fitted to disarm the prejudices and conciliate the favour of the Jewish element in the Church. That element had not yet been infected with the leaven of malignant bigotry, emanating from Jerusalem, which had made its influence felt in so many of the other Churches where Paul had laboured; and the epistle was intended to serve the purpose of prevention rather than cure. It was also intended to pave the way for the apostle's visit to the Church at Rome, whose destined greatness he foresaw, and by whose assistance he hoped to obtain a still wider field for his missionary labours.

Being addressed to the Christians of imperial Rome, this epistle is distinguished by its cosmopolitan tone, which is shown at the outset (i. 4, 5) by a reference to the "obedience of faith" to which "all the nations " are called in "Jesus Christ our Lord." It sets forth the universality of the Gospel as "the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek" (i. 16), and brings out the contrast not between Moses and Christ, as in Galatians, but between Adam and Christ as the representatives of nature and of grace (v. 12-21). With no less propriety, in writing to the inhabitants of a city that was the seat of justice for the whole civilised world, the apostle looks at

the great question of salvation from a judicial or forensic point of view,—exhibiting the bearing of the Gospel on the interests of law and righteousness, proving the guilt of all men, both Jews and Gentiles, at the bar of Divine judgment, and proclaiming the doctrine of justification by faith as the only means of acceptance with God.

Having set forth the great scheme of redemption, the apostle deals with its bearing on the fortunes of the chosen people (ix.-xi.) He shows that their failure to enter into the blessings of the New Covenant, which gave him " great sorrow and unceasing pain in (his) heart," was due to their own spiritual blindness, as foretold in the writings of the prophets. Their recent experience was in keeping with the analogy of God's dealings with them in the past, but their rejection was only partial and temporary, destined to lead in the mysterious wisdom of Divine providence to a still fuller manifestation of Divine goodness. "For God hath shut up all unto disobedience, that he might have mercy upon all" (xi. 32).

After this lesson on the philosophy of history, in which the apostle seeks to justify the ways of God with men and is moved again and again to adoration of the Divine wisdom, he exhorts his readers to the cultivation of various graces and virtues as the best refutation of the charge of lawlessness to which the gospel of the free grace of God is liable (xii.-xiv.) In conclusion, he sends numerous greetings to individual Christians with whom he is personally acquainted, many of whom had rendered valuable service to the Church, and with whom he had probably been brought into contact at Ephesus and other great centres.

There are several breaks in the epistle where it might have fitly terminated; and this circumstance, together with variations in the arrangement of these passages in some of the MSS., has given rise to the idea that the epistle was sent as an encyclical or circular-letter, with varying terminations, to a number of Churches. We may add that the fact of this epistle, although addressed

to Romans, being written in Greek, is not only in keeping with the apostle's literary habit, but is also in accordance with the general use of Greek at the time throughout the civilised world. The Christian congregations of the first century were like so many Greek colonies, as far as language was concerned; and it was not till the latter part of the second century that a Latin version and a Latin literature arose, chiefly for the benefit of the Christians in North Africa. It may be noted that most of those to whom the apostle sends salutations in this epistle bear Greek names.

CHAPTER XIV

THE EPISTLES OF THE IMPRISONMENT

AFTER the letter to the Romans there is an interval

of three or four years before we can trace any further correspondence on the part of the apostle. Leaving Corinth in the spring of 58 A.D., he made his way to Jerusalem along the coast of Macedonia and Asia Minor. In the course of his journey we find him taking farewell of one Church after another, under a strong presentiment of approaching calamity. Soon after his arrival in Jerusalem, he was arrested on account of a tumult resulting from a last effort which he made to conciliate the Jewish Christians. Removed as a prisoner to Cæsarea, he was there detained in custody for two years under the governor Felix; but, soon after the appointment of Festus as the successor of Felix, the apostle appealed for trial to the imperial judgment-seat, and was sent to Rome accordingly, under a military escort. After a disastrous voyage, in which he suffered shipwreck on the island of Malta, where he had to pass the winter, he arrived at Rome in the early summer of 61 A.D.—his long-cherished wish at length realised, but in a very different manner from what he had at one time anticipated. Owing to protracted delay in the hearing of his case-a thing by no means uncommon under the Emperors he remained for two years in military custody, his right hand chained to the left hand of the soldier who guarded him. He was permitted, however,

to reside in his own hired lodging, and to hold free converse with friends and visitors.

It was during this period that the epistles to the Philippians, the Colossians, Philemon, and the Ephesians were composed. Each of these epistles bears tokens of having been written during the author's imprisonment (Phil. i. 7, 13, 14, 17; Col. iv. 3, 18; Philemon vv. 9, 10, 13; Eph. iii. 1, iv. 1; cf. Acts xxviii. 16, 20). It is further evident that the imprisonment was occasioned by his preaching of the Gospel to the Gentiles (Col. i. 24-27; Eph. vi. 19-20; Acts xxii. 21-22, xxvi. 19-21). Some think that the imprisonment in question was that which the apostle endured at Cæsarea. But in several respects the circumstances referred to in the epistles harmonise better with his stay in Rome. In particular the impression made by his bonds which "became manifest in Christ throughout the whole prætorian guard, and to all the rest" (Phil. i. 13), and still more the mention of "Cæsar's household" (iv. 22), point to the imperial city-while the apostle's purpose of visiting Macedonia after his release (ii. 19), would not answer to his state of mind while he was looking forward to a visit to Rome. We may add that the expression used in Acts xxviii. 20 to describe Paul's confinement, namely "this chain," is almost identical with the language of Ephes. vi. 20, margin. The same cannot be said of Acts xxvi. 29, relating to the imprisonment at Cæsarea.

With regard to the order in which these four epistles were written, many critics have been disposed to assign Philippians to a later date than the three others. But none of their arguments when examined appear to have much weight. Philemon-which can be shown to be contemporaneous with Colossians (see p. 93) — affords as probable an indication of having been written when the imprisonment was drawing to a close (ver. 23,) as anything to be found in Philippians. We cannot, however, infer much, from such expressions, as the apostle's prospects may have undergone various vicissitudes during his imprisonment. We are on safer ground