bility seems to be that the letter was written shortly after the outbreak of the Neronian persecution, when the Churches in the provinces were beginning to experience the effects of the imperial example at Rome. would be about 64-5 A.D.

This

Its Character and Contents. This epistle breathes the spirit of practical earnestness so characteristic of its author. The Greek word "to do good" occurs no less than nine times in the course of the five chapters. There is no want of allusion to Christian privilege and Christian doctrine; but it is always for a practical purpose, as furnishing motives for Christian obedience. Of this we have an illustration in the frequent use of the words "wherefore," "because," etc., by way of enforcing practical applications (i. 13, 16, 22; ii. I, etc.). The chief duty which the writer wishes to inculcate is that of patience under suffering (i. 6-7; ii. 1921; iii. 13-18; iv. 12-19). In many cases this suffering arose from persecution. But it was social rather than legal persecution, proceeding from suspicion and ill-will on the part of the non-Christian members of the community (ii. 18-19; iii. 16). The very name of Christian was becoming a term of reproach (iv. 16); and even worse trials were in store for them (iv. 12, 17). For the endurance of all such unmerited sufferings the apostle points them to the example of the Saviour (whose sufferings are referred to in every chapter), at the same time bidding them take care that they did not bring trouble on themselves by their unworthy conduct. Their trials, he reminds them, are only for a time (i. 6; iv. 7; v. 10), and will receive abundant compensation at the revelation of Christ's glory (i. 7; iv. 13-14; v. 10). "The sufferings of Christ and the glories that should follow are indeed the two poles around which the whole argument of the epistle turns, resulting in a beautiful blending of patience and hope. Hence Peter has been styled "the Apostle of Hope."

Along with the calls to patience there are mingled various other admonitions addressed to citizens, ii. 13

17; servants, ii. 18-20; wives, iii. 1-6; husbands, iii. 7; elders of the Church, v. 1-4; and the congregation generally, with reference to various duties, iv. 5-11, etc. It is worthy of note, that although this epistle has so little of a speculative character, it has been the means of revealing two interesting truths, which would not have been otherwise known to us (i. 12, last clause; iii. 1820). It may also be said to contain a practical refutation of the Romish theory as to Peter's jurisdiction in the Church. So far from making any claim to authority or pre-eminence, the writer expressly puts himself on a level with the other presbyters, and deprecates anything like a spirit of lordship in the exercise of their ministry (v. 1-3). The names "priest," bishop," "1 "Church,"

are never even mentioned by him.

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1 Except in ii. 25, where, however, it is Christ Himself who is so designated

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CHAPTER XXII

2 PETER-JUDE 1

"" THE SECOND EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER

WHO

WHO wrote it.-The genuineness of this epistle has been more questioned than that of any other book in the New Testament. The external evidence for it is comparatively meagre. While it may be true that echoes of its language are to be found in not a few works of the second century, yet the first writer to make express and unmistakable mention of it is Origen (230 A.D.), and he does so in such a manner as to show that he has doubts about its genuineness. A century later it is classed by Eusebius among the disputed books of the New Testament.

The difficulty of accepting it as a genuine writing of Peter has chiefly arisen both in ancient and in modern times from its differing so greatly in tone and substance from the first epistle, written, as we have seen, near the close of Peter's life. There is scarcely any reference in it to our Saviour's sufferings or resurrection, which figure so largely in the first epistle; and what it chiefly inculcates is knowledge rather than hope.

But, apart from the versatility of Peter's mind, this difference may to a large extent be accounted for by the different circumstances under which the two epistles were written. While the first epistle was evidently designed to encourage and support Christians under persecution, this later one was intended to warn them against false teachers who were spreading corruption in 1 On the connection between these two epistles, see p. 142.

the Church. At the same time this epistle, like the first, is eminently practical, insisting on the necessity of Christian duty for the perfecting of Christian knowledge, emphasising the danger of knowledge without practice (i. 5-10; ii. 20-21), and giving a practical turn to the argument (iii. II, 14). Moreover, a close examination of the language and thought in this epistle brings out many points of resemblance between it and Peter's language elsewhere. A likeness to the first epistle will be found on a comparison of the undernoted passages.1 It may also be seen in the frequent use of twofold expressions, e.g. (in this epistle) " precious and exceeding great," "not idle nor unfruitful," "without spot and blameless" (i. 4, 8, 9, 19; ii. 3, 10, 13, etc.), and in the marked recurrence in both epistles of the word "holy." A number of verbal coincidences have also been observed between this epistle and the Gospel of Mark as well as Peter's speeches in the Book of Acts; but they are for the most part verbal, and such as can only be appreciated by a student of the original.2

It has also been found that this epistle, like the first, is distinguished by the use of rare words, occurring scarcely anywhere else in the New Testament; and these are, for the most part, of a striking and pictorial character, after the manner of Peter. E.g. "whose sentence now from of old lingereth not" (ii. 3), "turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah into ashes" (ii. 6), “enticing unstedfast souls," "they entice in the lusts of the flesh" (ii. 14, 18) (the word translated "entice" meaning literally to take with a bait, being such a word as a fisherman would naturally use) "which the ignorant and unstedfast wrest, as they do also the other scriptures" (iii. 16)—the Greek word for "" wrest" meaning to put on the rack, like a criminal, for the purpose of extorting a desired confession.

It is worthy of remark as a note of genuineness that

1 i. 2, 1 Pet. i. 2; i. 7, 1 Pet. i. 22, iii. 8; i. 19-20, 1 Pet. i. 10-12; ii. 1, 1 Pet. i. 18; iii. 5, 1 Pet. iii. 20; i. 3, 1 Pet. v. 10; iii. 14, 1 Pet. i. 19.

2 Traced by Dr. Lumby in Speaker's Commentary, and Expositor, vol. iv.

although the writer was evidently acquainted with the first epistle (iii. 1), he does not copy its designation of the apostle, as a forger might surely have been expected to do, nor does he attach the same address to the epistle (i. I, I Pet. i. 1). Similarly, when he mentions the words spoken by the voice from heaven at the Transfiguration, he does not give them exactly as they are reported in the Gospels; and, in immediate connection with the Transfiguration, he makes use of two words, namely "tabernacle" and "decease,” that would naturally be associated in Peter's mind with the memory of that great incident (i. 14-18, cf. Luke ix. 31-33). In his use of the expression in the same passage, " even as our Lord Jesus Christ signified unto me," we may trace an allusion to our Lord's prophecy in John xxi. 18-19.

To whom written. Apparently to the same readers as the first epistle (iii. 1).

Where and when written.-We may regard it as certain that it was written before the destruction of Jerusalem. Otherwise such an impressive instance of divine judgment could scarcely have been left unnoticed in alluding to the retributive justice of God.

At the same time the errors and dangers described in this epistle, which bear a strong resemblance to those referred to in the pastoral epistles (1 Tim. iv. 1-2; vi. 5, 20-21; 2 Tim. ii. 18; iii. 1-7), prove that it could not have been written much sooner than 70 A.D. The allusion to Paul's epistles as known to his readers (iii. 15-16) leads to the same conclusion, as does also the frequency of the expression "put in remembrance" and kindred words (i. 12, 13, 15; iii. 1-2), which indicate an advanced period in the apostolic age, as well as in the life of Peter-if he was the writer.

Like the first epistle, this was probably written from Rome; but the use of the apostle's Hebrew name of Symeon, or Simon (i. 1), as well as the connection of this epistle with that of Jude, would seem to indicate a Palestinian influence of some sort, possibly in the person of Peter's amanuensis or secretary.