empire in the fourth century was one of great misery. The free population of the country was reduced in numbers, and their place was supplied with slaves from all the provinces which had been the seats of war. In the great cities, large masses of the inhabitants were in a state of pauperism, maintained at the public expense. The best parts of the various provinces were divided among large proprietors, and cultivated by slaves. Vast armies were maintained in the different divisions of the empire, which, in the hands of the most daring and ambitious of the generals, were made. the instruments to extend and support despotic power. Excessive taxation dried up the sources of industry, and was burdensome to all classes. The accumulation of laws and edicts for a thousand years, their conflicting principles, and undigested contents, overcame the judges appointed to administer them, and justice was driven from the bench to be sacrificed to caprice and to corruption. Law became a burden too heavy to be borne. Traditionary customs and common law were wanting in the general government of the Roman empire, because the vastness of the territory, and the variety and number of the peoples, and races, brought by conquest under its power, prevented unity of administration, and destroyed every feeling of patriotism and nationality. Restlessness of mind, and expectation of change, appeared to have prevailed everywhere. The social condition of the population indicated, according to the well-established law of human nature, approaching great internal revolutions and foreign invasions. The great movement from within and without kept pace with each other. The struggle of the six emperors for the imperial power, the final triumph of one, the transference of power from the west to the east, the convulsions that succeeded the death of Con

D

stantine, the reaction caused by the apostasy of Julian, civil wars leading to the division of the empire into two monarchies, were the internal changes in the fourth century. From without there were wars on the east, west, and north. Towards the end of the century the barriers of the empire were forced by the insurgent frontier peoples. The great migration of nations began. The sunshine and the wealth of Italy and Greece attracted the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals. To defend the centre of the empire the legions were withdrawn from Britain at the beginning of the fifth century; and that island, left to itself, passed through trials and foreign invasions as severe as any of the Roman provinces. Still the great military force of the Roman empire could not save Rome itself from insult, siege and plunder, and at the end of twelve centuries, wanting thirty-seven years, from the foundation of the city, it fell into the hands of Alaric the Goth.*

With these introductory remarks, we will proceed with the history of the war ensign of the cross.

The famous vision of the figure of the cross, alleged to have been seen by Constantine in the sky, at noonday, while preparing for the decisive battle with the Emperor Maxentius on the banks of the Tiber, a few miles above Rome, is one of those extraordinary and picturesque incidents which, in its immediate consequences, and remote results, is still felt in the world. The exact day, when the vision was said to have been seen, is not ascertained, but the great battle took place on the 28th of October, 312. The vague idea is, that it was seen on the day of the battle

*The preceding brief sketch of the state of the Roman world in the fourth century is drawn from the histories of Gibbon, Niebuhr, and Sismondi.

as the two armies were in sight of each other; but the time is not mentioned by Eusebius in his historical biography of Constantine. He merely states, that while Constantine was praying, God sent him a vision of a cross of light in the heavens at mid-day, with an inscription admonishing him to "CONQUER BY THIS." Eusebius adds, "that it might be difficult to receive the account with credit, had it been related by any other person. But since the victorious emperor himself, long afterwards, declared it to the writer of this history, when he was honoured with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony of after-time has established its truth? He said that about mid-day, when the sun was beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army also, which happened to be following him on some expedition, and witnessed the miracle."* "And

while he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night imperceptibly drew on; and in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded him to procure a standard made in the likeness of that sign, and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies." + Eusebius further states, that at the dawn of day Constantine arose and communicated the secret to his friends, and gave orders for "the making of the Standard of the Cross, which the Romans now call the Labarum." This military standard of the

* Eusebius's "Life of the Emperor Constantine," chap. xxviii. + Ibid., chap. xxix.

stantine, the reaction caused by the apostasy of Julian, civil wars leading to the division of the empire into two monarchies, were the internal changes in the fourth century. From without there were wars on the east, west, and north. Towards the end of the century the barriers of the empire were forced by the insurgent frontier peoples. The great migration of nations began. The sunshine and the wealth of Italy and Greece attracted the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals. To defend the centre of the empire the legions were withdrawn from Britain at the beginning of the fifth century; and that island, left to itself, passed through trials and foreign invasions as severe as any of the Roman provinces. Still the great military force of the Roman empire could not save Rome itself from insult, siege and plunder, and at the end of twe centuries, wanting thirty-seven years, from the dation of the city, it fell into the hands of