e. g., "Babylonia," etc., and the selected bibliographies appended to them, offer the best approach to the subject. Literature.-For the current opinion about the age and authorship of the books of the Old Testament and other critical questions the student may profitably consult: DRIVER, S. R., Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. 6th ed. 1897. A smaller book which may serve for a first approach to the subject is MOORE, G. F., The Literature of the Old Testament. 1913. For the historical literature see the article under that title in Encyclopædia Biblica. More detailed information will be found in the articles on the several books of the Old Testament in Encyclopædia Biblica, Dictionary of the Bible, and elsewhere.-On the Apocrypha, Apocalypses, etc.: KAUTZSCH, EMIL (and others), Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments. 2 vols. 1900. Translations, with introduction and notes. CHARLES, R. H. (and others), The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English, with introduction and critical and explanatory notes. 2 vols. 1913. For those who read German, Kautzsch is preferable.-Rabbinical and later Jewish literature: WINTER, J., und WÜNSCHE, AUG., Geschichte der jüdisch-hellenistischen und talmudischen Litteratur. 3 vols. 1894-6. Includes all branches and periods of the literature in monographic treatment by many scholars, with illustrative extracts in translation.-Religious and moral teaching of the Jewish school and synagogue: BACHER, WILHELM, Die Agada der Tannaiten. 2 vols. 1884-90 (Vol. I, 2d ed., 1903). Palestinian masters down to about 200 A. D. in chronological order, with their moral and religious teachings and interpretations of Scripture, etc., topically arranged. Of the greatest value for the age of the New Testament. By the same author, a corresponding work, Die Agada der palästinensischen Amoräer. 3 vols. 1892-9. To the beginning of the fifth century. Religion.-SMITH, W. ROBERTSON, The Religion of the Semites. 2d ed. 1894. Reference may also be made to CURTISS, SAMUEL IVES, Primitive Semitic Religion To-Day. 1902. On survivals of prehistoric heathenism in the popular religion of Syria and Palestine.—Inasmuch as religion is the chief interest in the history of Israel, the subject is treated more or less fully in all the histories the titles of which have been given above. On the history of the religion specifically, SMEND, RUDOLF, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte. 2d ed. 1899. KAUTZSCH, EMIL, "Religion of Israel,” in Dictionary of the Bible (Hastings), Extra Volume, pp. 642-734. SMITH, H. P., The Religion of Israel; an historical study. 1914. PETERS, JOHN P., The Religion of the Hebrews. 1914. With a classified bibliography. SCHULTZ, HERMANN, Alttestamentliche Theologie. 4th ed. 1889. English translation (from the 4th German edition): Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. 1892.-Particular subjects: MOORE, G. F., "Sacrifice," Encyclopædia Biblica, Vol. IV, cols. 4183– 4233. With bibliography. MITCHELL, H. G., The Ethics of the Old Testament. 1912. HUGHES, H. M., The Ethics of Jewish Apocryphal Literature. 1909. CHARLES, R. H., A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity. 1913. Jewish School and Synagogue.-SCHÜRER (above), with extensive literature. WEBER, FERDINAND, Die Lehren des Talmud. (1880, under

another title) 1886. To be used with caution, and hardly without independent knowledge; the author has imposed upon the subject a system wholly foreign, and even antagonistic to it, and adduces testimonies indiscriminately from any place or time. BOUSSET, WILHELM, Die Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter. 2d ed. 1906. (Literature, pp. 54-59.) This presentation depends far too largely upon apocryphal and apocalyptic writings which Judaism itself has never regarded as authoritative, and Judaism is in the author's mind too clearly a foil for Christianity. An excellent treatment of certain important subjects, to be particularly commended to Christian students, is SCHECHTER, SOLOMON, Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology. 1909. VOLZ, PAUL, Jüdische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba. 1903. The most thorough monograph on the subject. Valuable studies on special topics are: ELBOGEN, J., Die Religionsanschauungen der Pharisäer. 1904. KLAUSNER, JOSEPH, Die messianischen Vorstellungen des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter der Tannaiten. 1904.-On Jewish worship in the Synagogue: DEMBITZ, L. N., Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home. 1898. OESTERLEY, W. O. E., and Box, G. H., Religion and Worship of the Synagogue. 2d ed. 1911. A recent work in this field, of the highest value but of a more technical character is ELBOGEN, ISMAR, Der jüdische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung. 1913. Middle Ages. On the Karaites and the Jewish philosophies and philosophised theologies of the Middle Ages, it must suffice here to refer to Winter und Wünsche, Litteratur u. s. w., (above), and to the relevant articles in the Jewish Encyclopedia, where the literature may be found with all necessary fulness; see also GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ, “Die islamische und die jüdische Philosophie" (below, under Mohammedanism). Particular mention may be made, however, of KAUFMANN, DAVID, Geschichte der Attributenlehre in der jüdischen Religionsphilosophie des Mittelalters von Saadja bis Maimani. 1877. MAIMONIDES, Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by M. Friedländer. 2d ed. 1904. A translation of select parts of BAHYA IBN PAKUDA, Duties of the Heart, by E. Collins, 1911.-Kabbala.—GINZBERG, Louis, "Cabala," Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. III, pp. 456-479. History and doctrines; ample literature. BLOCH, in Winter und Wünsche, Litteratur, Vol. III, pp. 220-286. Theology.-KOHLER, KAUFMAN, Jewish Theology Systematically and Historically Considered. 1918. ABELSON, J., The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature. 1912. See also, ABELSON, J., Jewish Mysticism. 1913. MARGOLIS, MAX, The Theological Aspect of Reform Judaism, in Year Book of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1903, pp. 185-338, and separately, 1904. Zionism. See Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 666-686. GOTTHEIL, RICHARD J. H., Zionism. 1914.

CHRISTIANITY

For a lucid and accurate, though extremely condensed, presentation of the external and internal history of Christianity, the reader is referred to WILLISTON WALKER, History of the Christian Church, 1918, to which, under the modest title, "Bibliographical Suggestions," is

appended a select bibliography, classified and annotated. The following list has a much more limited scope.

Works of Reference.-Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche. 3d ed. 24 vols. 1896-1913. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. 12 vols. 1908-12. Largely indebted to the preceding, but not a translation of it. The Catholic Encyclopedia. 15 vols. 1907-14. A work of excellent learning, and especially to be commended to Protestant students. A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. Edited by SMITH, W., and WACE, H. 4 vols. 1877-87. Covering the first eight centuries. History.-GIBBON, EDWARD, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Edited by J. B. BURY. 7 vols. 18961900. The Cambridge Medieval History. Edited by GWATKIN, H. M., and WHITNEY, J. P. 2 vols. I. The Christian Roman Empire and the Foundation of the Teutonic Kingdoms. 1911. II. The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire. 1913. The Cambridge Modern History. Edited by WARD, A. W., PROTHERO, G. W., and LEATHES, S. 13 vols. 1902-12. I. The Renaissance. II. The Reformation. III. The Wars of Religion. IV. The Thirty Years' War. The Cambridge Histories are a series of monographs by many scholars, with ample bibliographies accompanying each section. EMERTON, EPHRAIM, The Beginnings of Modern Europe (1250-1450). 1917. An instructive and extremely interesting book on a critical period. Literature.-MOFFATT, JAMES, The Historical New Testament. A new translation, with prolegomena, historical tables, critical notes, and an appendix. 2d ed. 1901. MOFFATT, JAMES, Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament. 1911. JÜLICHEr, Adolf. Einleitung in das Neue Testament. 5th and 6th ed. 1906; reprinted 1913. English translation: Introduction to the New Testament. 1904. KRÜGER, GUSTAV. Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten. 1st and 2d ed. 1895. English translation: History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Centuries. 1897. Of larger works on the same subject especial mention may be made of BARDENHEWER, OTTO, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur. 3 vols. (Vols. I and II, 2d ed., 1913-14; Vol. III, 1912.) To the end of the fourth century. History.-HERGENRÖTHER, Cardinal JOSEPH, Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte. 4th ed. By J. P. KIRSCH, 3 vols. 1902-7. A work of great learning; very full registration of the literature. Moeller, WILHELM, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. 3 vols. (Vol. III bearbeitet von Gustav Kawerau.) 2d and 3d eds. 1897-1907. English translation: History of the Christian Church. 1892-1900. I. The Ancient Church (A. D. 1-600). II. Middle Ages. III. Reformation and Counter-Reformation. -DuCHESNE, LOUIS, Histoire ancienne de l'église. 3d and 4th eds. 3 vols. 1906-10. English translation: The Early History of the Christian Church, from its Foundation to the End of the Fifth Century. 2 vols. 1909, 1912. HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH, Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie. 2 vols. 1897. WEIZSÄCKER, Carl von, Das apostolische Zeitalter der Christlichen Kirche. 2d ed. 1892. English translation: The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church. 2 vols. 1897. MCGIFFERT, A. C.,

History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age. 1910. EUSEBIUS, Ecclesiastical History, translated and annotated by A. C. McGIFFERT. HARNACK, ADOLF VON, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten. 3d ed. 2 vols. 1915. English translation: The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. 2 vols. 1908. DOBSCHÜTZ, ERNST VON, Die urchristlichen Gemeinden; sittengeschichtliche Bilder. 1902. English translation: Christian Life in the Primitive Church. 1904. HARNACK, Adolf VON, Entstehung und Entwickelung der Kirchenverfassung und des Kirchenrechts in den zwei ersten Jahrhunderten. 1910. English translation: The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries. 1910. Doctrine.-Sources for the history of Christian doctrine. The Ante-Nicene Fathers; translations of the writings of the Fathers down to A. D. 325. 9 vols. 1885-96. Bibliography and General Index (to 1st 8 vols.). 1887. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series I, 14 vols. 1886-94. Series II, 12 vols. 1890-5. On the history of doctrine the most useful work for the student is, LOOFS, FRIEDRICH, Leitfaden zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte. 4th ed. 1906. With copious extracts from the Fathers and other sources. A convenient work of similar kind accessible in translation is, SEEBERG, REINHOLD, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. 2d and 3d eds. 3 vols. 1908-13. English translation: Text-Book of the History of Doctrines. 2 vols. 1905. On a much larger scale and of more individual character is, HARNACK, ADOLF VON, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. 4th ed. 3 vols. 1909-10. English translation (from 3d German edition): History of Dogma. 7 vols. 1894-9. SCHAFF, PHILIP, The Creeds of Christendom. 4th ed. 3 vols. 1905. A collection of the creeds and confessions, ancient and modern, with translations and notes, and an historical introduction. For the history of early Christian worship the most useful book is DUCHESNE, LOUIS, Origines du culte chrétien. 5th ed. 1909. Middle Ages. Papacy.-MIRBT, CARL, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums. 3d ed. 1911. CREIGHTON, MANDELL, History of the Papacy, from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome. 6 vols. 1899. PASTOR, Ludwig, Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters. 3 vols. 188695. A supplement to this is, PASTOR, Ungedruckte Akten zur Geschichte der Päpste. 1904-6. English translation: History of the Poes from the Close of the Middle Ages. 2d ed. 11 vols. 1899-1912. HEFELE, CARL JOSEPH VON, Conciliengeschichte. 2d ed. 1873 seqq. English translation: History of the Councils of the Church. 1871-96. Scholastic Philosophy and Theology.-WULF, MAURICE DE, Histoire de la philosophie médiévale; précédée d'un aperçu sur la philosophie ancienne. 1900. English translation: History of Medieval Philosophy. 1909. STÖCKL, Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters. I, 1864; II, 1865; III, 1866. HAURÉAU, BARTHÉLEMY, Histoire de la philosophie scolastique. 3 vols. 1872-80. TAYLOR, H. O., The Mediaval Mind. 2 vols. 1914. MACLEAR, G. F., A History of Christian Missions during the Middle Ages. 1863. FORTESCUE, A., The Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described. 1918. Technical. TREVELYAN, G. M., England in the Age of Wycliffe. 1899. LECHLER, G. V., Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation. 2 vols. 1873. SCHAFF, D. S.,

John Huss, His Life, Teachings, and Death, after Five Hundred Years. 1915. Renaissance. See the Cambridge Modern History. Vol. I. Protestant Reformation. LINDSAY, T. M., A History of the Reformation. 2 vols. 1906-7. McGIFFERT, A. C., Martin Luther; the Man and His Work. 1911. SMITH, PRESERVED, Martin Luther. 1911. KÖSTLIN, J., Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften. 2 vols. 2d ed. 1883. By one of the leading German Luther students. GRISAR, HARTMANN, Luther. 3 vols. 1911-12. A learned Catholic historian, who makes use of a good deal of material recently brought to light. Authorised English translation: Martin Luther. 6 vols. 1915-17. WALKER, WILLISTON, John Calvin. 1906. For other biographies, histories of particular churches or sects, etc., reference must be made to the bibliography in Walker (see above). The best general survey of the history of Christianity since the Reformation is Geschichte der Christlichen Religion (Die Kultur der Gegenwart, I, 4). 2d ed. 1909: EHRHARD, ALBERT, "Katholisches Christentum und Kirche Westeuropas in der Neuzeit" (pp. 298-430); TROELTSCH, ERNST, "Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche in der Neuzeit" (pp. 431-755). The former is by an eminent Catholic historian, the latter by one of the leading Protestant theologians of Germany. Both are furnished with excellent classified bibliographies.

MOHAMMEDANISM

Works of Reference.-HUGHES, THOMAS P., Dictionary of Islam. 1885. Convenient, but with serious limitations. The great Encyclopædia of Islam is only in its beginnings. A large annotated bibliography is appended to The Presentation of Christianity to Moslems. 1917. Literature.-NÖLDEKE, THEODOR, Geschichte des Qorāns. 1860. 2d ed. Bearbeitet von Friedrich Schwally. Part I. 1909. The most important critical work. SALE, GEORGE, The Koran. 1734; very often reprinted. A paraphrastic translation, embodying the interpretation of Moslem commentators; with notes, and a Preliminary Discourse on the life of Mohammed, Moslem doctrine and practice (now in part antiquat d). RODWELL, J. M., El-Kor'ân; or The Korân: translated from the Arabic, the Suras arranged in chronological order. 1871. 2d revised and amended edition. 1876. The attempt to arrange the chapters in chronological order is conjectural and inconvenient. PALMER, EDWARD H., The Qur'ân. 2 vols. 1880. Sacred Books of the East, Vols. VI and IX. Not equal to Palmer's reputation, either in the translation or the introduction. The only translation which gives any notion of what the Koran is like in form is RÜCKERT, FRIEDRICH, Der Koran im Auszuge übersetzt. Edited by August Müller. '888. WHERRY, E. M., Comprehensive Commentary on the Quran. vols. 1882-6. History.-MÜLLER, AUGUST, Der Islam im Morn- und Abendland. 2 vols. 1885-7. The best comprehensive hisry. Encyclopædia Britannica. 9th ed. 1875-88. "Mohammedan" "Mohammed" (Wellhausen), "Early Caliphate" (Stanislas ard), “The Koran" (Theodor Nöldeke). In the 11th edition the lent article on the “Caliphate” by de Goeje, and the brief articles, ̈`