The gist of the founder's doctrine of himself may be briefly stated in his own words: "As I have been given the name of Messiah by God, with reference to the creatures' rights, and am an incarnation of Jesus Christ, on account of having been sent in his spirit and character and cast in the same mould, similarly I have received the name of Muhammad Ahmad by virtue of my function as a reformer of the transgression of Creator's authority to spread the unity of God, and therefore I have been sent in the spirit and character and cast in the mould of the holy Prophet Muhammad, may peace and blessings of God be upon him. Thus I am at once Isa Messih and Muhammad Mahdi. Messiah is a title given to Jesus Christ, and it means one who is anointed and blessed by God, his vicegerent in earth and a truthful and righteous person. The title of Mahdi was given to the holy Prophet Muhammad, and it means one who is naturally guided and the heir to all truths, and in whom the attribute 'guide' of the Almighty is fully represented. The grace of God and mercy have made me the heir to both these titles in this age, and manifested them conjointly in my person. This is the true interpretation of my claim to the title of Isa Messih and Muhammad Mahdi. The way in which this manifestation has taken place is known in Islamic terminology as baruz.1 I am therefore a baruz of Jesus as well as of Muhammad, peace be with them, and my person is spiritually a combination of the persons of these two eminent prophets." 2

In contradiction to both Christian and Moslem belief that Jesus, after his crucifixion, rose from the tomb and was taken up to heaven, whence in the last days he will return, Ahmed felt it necessary to his own pretensions to prove that Jesus did not die, but, his wounds having been healed by a magical ointment, made his escape to Galilee, and thence found his

1 "Baruz means the spiritual appearance of one in the person of another, the two bearing a striking resemblance to each other in their qualities and characters, and being as like one another as two peas." 2 See Revue du Monde Musulman, vol. I, pp. 534 ƒƒ.

way to the East, where his tomb was opportunely discovered at Srinagar, in Cashmere.

Apart from the claims for the founder's own person, the movement appears on its own presentation as an endeavour to revive a religious spirit among Indian Moslems, and to reform some of their ways. It appeals for authority to the Koran, the Old and New Testaments, and to "trustworthy" Moslem traditions. Under the stimulus of the educational work of Christian missionaries, considerable stress is laid upon similar efforts by Moslems. Ahmed died in 1908; but the progress of the movement continued, and it has been recently estimated that its adherents now number perhaps 50,000. It, also, has established its missionary outposts in the West, and publishes in English the "Review of Religions" in India, and the "Islamic Review" in England. An edition of the Koran in sumptuous form, with an English translation, and a commentary embodying the sectarian interpretation, has been begun.

LITERATURE

The sole aim of the following list is to direct the reader who may desire to inform himself more fully about one of the religions treated in this volume, or some aspect of it, to books which he may with advantage consult for that purpose. Books of a highly technical character are not included, nor, on the other hand, purely popular works. Especial mention is made of the books in any of these fields in which fuller bibliographies may be found. So far as possible, reference is made to books accessible in English; but the most important books in other languages are also named. Investigations of special topics in monographs or periodicals are not entered in the list.

GENERAL

Works of Reference.—Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. Edited by JAMES HASTINGS. Vol. I. 1908. This comprehensive work has now reached the tenth volume ("Picts-Sacraments," 1919), and its completion may be expected within a comparatively short time. It contains many articles on the religions to which the present volume is devoted-articles historical, theological, philosophical, and biographical -besides the discussion of many features of these religions in large, comprehensive articles upon religious, moral, and social phenomena. Most of these contributions are from scholars of recognised competence and some of high rank in their special field. The selected bibliographies appended to the articles will serve to guide the inquirer to the most important literature on the subject. The general periodicals on the history of religions, such as the Revue de l'histoire des religions, frequently contain articles of value on subjects which fall within the scope of this volume, but they have not the same relative importance as in the field of the former volume. In the Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, edited by P. D. CHantepie de la Saussaye (3d ed., 1905), the religion of the Israelites is treated by J. J. P. Valeton, Jr., of Utrecht, but comes to an end with the beginning of the Christian era. The chapters on Islam are written by the very competent hand of M. Th. Houtsma, of the same university, but within cramping limits of space. Judaism since the first century of the Christian era is ignored, and Christianity is excluded, as is the case in several other of the larger comprehensive works on the history of religions, probably because it was thought that it had a sufficiently large literature of its own. recent works designed for general readers, especial mention may be made of HOPKINS, E. W., The History of Religions, 1918, which treats of the so-called primitive religions and those of the barbaric civilisations, as well as those of peoples upon a higher plane of culture, including Christianity.

Of

Inasmuch as the Old Testament is sacred Scripture to Christians as well as to Jews, the Bible dictionaries covering the Old Testament and the New are of use as works of reference to the student both of Judaism and of Christianity. Two such works may be particularly recommended here: Encyclopædia Biblica. Edited by T. K. CHEYNE and J. SUTHERLAND BLACK. 4 vols. 1899-1903. Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by JAMES HASTINGS. 4 vols. 1898-1902; with an Extra Volume, containing supplementary articles, 1904. The former, notwithstanding some provocative eccentricities, is a superior piece of apparatus; the latter better represents the middle way in criticism, which is supposed to be safe. Both are for the most part the product of the best English and American scholarship. Some of the more comprehensive encyclopædias, particularly the Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche and the Catholic Encyclopedia, include in their scope the field of the Bible dictionaries, and the Jewish Encyclopedia does the same for the Old Testament.

JUDAISM

Works of Reference.-The Jewish Encyclopedia. 12 vols. 1901-6. Indispensable for biography, philosophy, theology, ritual, etc.

History. The only work covering the whole history on a large scale is GRAETZ, HEINRICH, Geschichte der Juden von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart. 11 vols. 1853-74. English translation, omitting the notes and appendices of the original: History of the Jews. 5 vols. 1891-2. American edition, revised and continued, 1891-8, with a sixth (index) volume.-For the Old Testament period, or to the beginning of the Christian era, EwALD, HEINRICH, Geschichte des Volkes Israel. 3d ed. 1864-6 (4 vols. to the beginning of the Christian era). The most important work on the subject from the critical presumptions of the middle of the nineteenth century. English translation, edited by Russell Martineau: The History of Israel. 8 vols. 1869-86. STADE, BERNHARD, Geschichte des Volkes Israel. 2 vols. 1887-9. The first considerable work upon the basis of the newer criticism. WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS, Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte. 7th ed. 1914. The most illuminating and suggestive treatment of the subject. MCCURDY, J. F., History, Prophecy, and the Monuments; or Israel and the Nations. 3 vols. 1895-1901. SMITH, H. P., Old Testament History. 1903.-From 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. SCHÜRER, EMIL, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi. 3 vols. 3d and 4th eds. 1898-1901. With full and almost exhaustive bibliographies of every part of the subject. English translation (from the 2d German edition): A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. 3 vols. 1885-91. In part parallel to Schürer, but extending into the subsequent period, Juster, Jean, Les Juifs dans l'empire Romain; leur condition juridique, économique et sociale. 2 vols. 1914 (an index volume is to follow). A work of enormous learning and the highest value.-For the history of the Jews after the war under Hadrian, besides the history of Graetz (above), the articles in the Jewish Encyclopedia, under the various countries in which Jews were settled,