Prayer. It is a clear and comprehensive statement of Catholic teaching in theology and morals, based primarily upon the Scripture, but fortified by abundant references to the Fathers. It was highly commended by Pope Pius V and several of his successors, and while it has never had exclusive authority or universal use in catechetical instruction,' it may be regarded as a standard of orthodoxy in the chief topics of theology.

The revival of dogmatic theology which had begun in Spain before the Reformation was greatly stimulated by the work of the council, in which Spanish theologians took a leading part. The ablest systematic work which came from this school is the "De Locis Theologicis" of the Spanish Dominican Melchior Cano (d. 1560), who naturally follows in the footsteps of Aquinas, but endeavours to put the scholastic theology on a broader basis. In defence of Tridentine doctrine and polemic against Protestantism, the learned and acute writings of the Italian cardinal Bellarmin, easily hold the first place. As an antidote to the Lutheran "Magdeburg Centuries," in which church history testified to the antiquity of Protestantism, Baronius (d. 1607) produced his monumental "Ecclesiastical Annals," a work of enormous erudition and genuine historical spirit. In the vast collections of works of the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, and in a multitude of separate editions, there was in the later sixteenth century and through the seventeenth a veritable rennaissance of Christian literature. The apparatus for a critical study of the original texts and versions of the Bible was provided in the Complutensian Polyglot (1514-'17) of Cardinal Ximenes and its more comprehensive successors, the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots (1569 ff. and 1629 f.), both from the hands of Catholic scholars, from whom came also learned and voluminous commentaries on the whole Bible and on parts of it.

1 The Jesuits, indeed, impugned its symbolical character, out of dislike for its too explicitly Thomist attitude on the doctrines of grace, and even professed to discover heresies in it.

Beside and beneath all this was a greatly quickened religious earnestness, which manifested itself in the founding of new orders and religious congregations, many of them devoted to Christian work-teaching, charitable and spiritual labours among the poor, the care of the sick; and on another side in a revival of Catholic piety which took its habitual ascetic-mystical forms. The mysticism of Santa Teresia and St. John of the Cross, or of St. Francis de Sales, is, however, of a different type from the classical mysticism of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It had not the same predominating intellectual character, and sought its goal not in the intellectual vision of God, but in absorbing love and complete quiescence in the will of God.

In this great revival of Catholicism, and in the recovery to the Church of whole regions or countries which had fallen away, no single instrument effected so much as the Society of Jesus, which obtained the approbation of Pope Paul III in 1540. The founder, best known by his Latinised name, Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556), was a Spanish nobleman brought up to the career of arms, whose heart and mind were turned to religion during a long convalescence from a wound received in the siege of Pampeluna in 1521. The soldier's spirit is impressed on the order in its original name, "Compañía de Jesús," in the military model of its organisation, and in the principle of soldierly obedience which is the essence of its rule. The same spirit is manifest in the long and systematic training to which the members of the order are submitted.

This is the outward side of Loyola's institution; the soul of it is the "Book of Spiritual Exercises," a method of religious experience, in which by meditation on sin, righteousness, and judgment, the abhorrence of sin is aroused by which the soul is purified; in the second stage, meditation on the kingdom of Christ leads to the dedication of life to the service of God; in the following stages this resolve is confirmed, the difficulties of the religious life are presented, and the way to overcome them shown; the end to which this

whole discipline is directed is reached when the soul is filled with an ardent love of God. This is not, however, as in quietist mysticism, the ultimate and all-satisfying achievement, but the motive power of a life of intelligent activity in the service of God and his church.

The great influence of the order was gained and exercised in three principal ways: first, by preaching, especially in missions, by which they reached the masses; second, as confessors and spiritual advisers of rulers; and, third, by their schools and colleges, in which great numbers of youth of the higher classes were educated. The Jesuits were the reformers of education in the Catholic countries of Europe; the Ratio Studiorum was a great advance both in matter and method over the medieval curriculum. They cultivated humanistic studies, while guarding against their dangers to faith and morals, and took an active part in the new development of science. In the advancement of Catholic learning, of which mention has been made above, Jesuit scholars vied with members of the older orders.

The discovery of America and the opening of the sea route to the East Indies, in which Spain and Portugal were foremost, and the reopening of the land way to China, coming in this time of quickened religious life, kindled the zeal of Christians for the conversion of the nations of the New World and of the oldest, and a new period of missionary activity began, in which the Jesuits had their full share. Loyola's first plan for his Company had been a mission enterprise, and this purpose was never lost sight of. One of the original little band, Francis Xavier, by his labours in India and Japan earned the title "Apostle of the Indies." He died knocking at the doors of China, but in the next generation Jesuit missionaries gained entrance to the empire and began their remarkable work. Among the aborigines of North and South America, also, Jesuit missionaries were among the foremost names. The Dominicans and Franciscans manifested similar enthusiasm for the Christianising of the world, and large results were achieved by their efforts.

The organisation of the Congregation "De Propaganda Fide" (1622) brought the missionary operations of the Church throughout the world under a central direction in Rome.

Protestants were much later than Catholics in the field of missions, except here and there on the margin of European colonies; it was not till the nineteenth century that they undertook the work on a larger scale through voluntary societies, and in part eventually as church organisations. In the meantime Protestant powers had taken the place of Spain and Portugal as the foremost colonising and commercial nations. In the four centuries that have elapsed since the opening of this third great age of expansion a large part of the world which at the beginning of the sixteenth century lay outside Christendom has been annexed to it by colonisation and by missions, both in the lands of ancient civilisation such as India, China, and Japan, and among races on a lower plane of culture in every quarter of the globe, and millions of converts have been gathered into native churches.

CHAPTER XIV

CHRISTIANITY

THE SEQUEL OF REFORMATION

Jansenism-Arminianism and the Synod of Dort-The School of Saumur-The Westminster Confession of Faith-Political Results of the Reformation-Dissatisfaction with its Religious ResultsPuritanism-Pietism-John Wesley and the Methodist Revival -The Baptists-George Fox and the Society of Friends-Multiplication of Sects-Transitional Character of the Renaissance and the Reformation-Things in which Catholics and Protestants Agreed.

To present a united front against Protestantism, the Council of Trent had avoided as far as possible explicit pronouncements, and even discussion, on questions which divided schools and orders within the church. The old controversies of Thomists and Scotists, of Dominicans and Franciscans, continued, with an increment of zeal from the universal revival of theological interest. The Jesuits were a new contentious element. They were promptly in conflict with the Dominicans over the ancient issue of divine grace and the human will, and in their antagonism to the Thomist Augustinianism of the older order some Jesuit theologians even went so far as to make grace efficacious non ex se, sed ex consensu humano præviso. Antagonism to such Pelagianising assertion of the power of the human will led on the other side to an Augustinian reaction which did not always keep within the bounds of scholastic qualifications, and was the more obnoxious because of its resemblance to Protestant doctrine. The condemnation of the Jansenists was a declaration of the Church against this suspicious revival of a high Augustinianism.

In the Protestant churches the great controversies of the post-Reformation period were in the same field, but in a