United Kingdom on these and other difficult points which had arisen during the insurrection, and made heavy claims of compensation for losses alleged to have resulted to them from the neglect of duty on the part of Great Britain. But, happily, all these claims, under the name of the Alabama case, were referred for arbitration to a special tribunal, and amicably settled.

Returning again to events in Europe, we find France in 1848 changed from a Constitutional Monarchy into a Republic, and in 1852 from a Republic into an Empire. We find the Italian States, bent upon securing their independence, rallying round the constitutional State of Sardinia, and in 1859, with the aid of France, rescuing from Austria the LombardoVeneto provinces. After years of dissension, Hungary obtained an autonomous position from Austria, while Prussia became potent in North Germany. But the taking of the Schleswig-Holstein Duchies from the Crown of Denmark and their annexation to Germany aroused the jealousy of Austria, and so Prussia and Austria waged war with one another. By the Treaty of Prague of 1866, Austria relinquished Venice in favour of Italy, and Victor Emanuel was able to assume the title of "King of Italy." Yet once more the clatter of arms resounded in Europe. Jealous and wishing to arrest the extension of Prussian power, France, in 1870, opened a conflict which aroused an intense national feeling under a sense of danger, but with the complete success of German arms, a new German Empire was

constituted in the great Hall of the Palace of Versailles, and France lost Alsace and Lorraine. With the fall of the Empire France became once more a Republic.

In the weakness of France, one of the parties to the Treaty of Paris of 1856, Russia, saw a favourable opportunity for asking to be released from the obligation she had then contracted of maintaining on the Black Sea only a limited number of war ships, and by her desire a Conference on the subject was held in London in 1871, when Russia, with the consent of all the Powers, and by the Treaty of May 13, 1871, was freed from her engagement. But again the condition of Turkey threatened the peace of Europe, the accounts of the sufferings of the Christians in Bulgaria and Bosnia having excited the strongest sympathies. In vain the European Powers appealed to the Sultan in favour of the Christian population in those States, and as the Conferences held on the subject proved fruitless, Russia made herself the champion of her co-religionists, and defeated the Turkish forces. The Russo-Turkish war ended by the Treaty of San Stefano. But a Congress assembled in Berlin, and by the Treaty of July 13, 1878,* Bulgaria was constituted

*The signatories to the Treaty of Berlin were-for the United Kingdom, the Earl of Beaconsfield, the Marquis of Salisbury, and Lord Odo Russell; for Germany, Prince Bismarck, B. de Bülow, and Prince Hohenlohe Schillingsfürst; for Austria, Count Andrassi, Count Cárolyi, and Baron de Haimerle; for France, M. Waddington, Count de Saint Vallier, and M. Desprez; for Italy, Count Corte and Count de Launay; for Russia, Prince Gortchakow, Count de Schouvaloff, and Paul d'Oubril; for Turkey, Carathéodory Pasha, Mehemed Ali Pasha, and Sadoullah Bey.

an autonomous and tributary Principality, Montenegro was declared free, and Servia and Roumania were made independent. But something more was done previous to this, for by a separate convention of defensive alliance between Great Britain and Turkey, signed June 4, 1878, Great Britain engaged to defend the territories of the Sultan in Asia, on his promise to introduce necessary reforms therein. And the Sultan consented to assign the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England. Still later events in Egypt and Bulgaria are keeping the eyes of Europe with great tension directed to the fortunes of the Turkish Empire, and we are witnessing the gradual surrender by the once-dreaded Mussulman Power of many portions of her European territory.

Brief as is the survey thus made, it exhibits a considerable progress in international relations. Not only is there a large increase in the number of recognized States, but a higher conception is being formed of the rights and duties which bind them one to another. There is a closer relation between the different Governments by means of permanent embassies and consulates, and there is more commingling of their peoples by the increase of trade and communication. Everywhere there is an earnest desire to improve the condition of the masses of the people and to extend and develop the resources of States.

Austria-Hungary is a Constitutional Monarchy. By a diploma of October 20, 1860, and a patent of February 26, 1861, the Constitutions previously in force in Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania were restored, and a fundamental Law was passed for the establishment of the Reischrath or Imperial Council. In 1866 Hungary was allowed self-government by a responsible Ministry, with a delegation for the transaction of the joint business of the two halves of the Empire. On November 14, 1868, the name of Austria-Hungary was adopted.

The frontiers between Austria and Italy were settled or affected by the Treaty between Austria, France, and Sardinia of June 16, 1860, by the Treaty

between Austria and Prussia of August 27, 1866, and by the Treaty between Austria and Italy of December 7, 1871.

Austria is party to the Treaty for the separation of Holland and Belgium of April 19, 1839; the pacification of the Levant of July 15, 1840; the navigation of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus of July 15, 1840; the succession to the Crown of Denmark of March 8, 1852; for guaranteeing the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire of April 15, 1856; the pacification of Syria of September 5, 1850; the navigation of the Black Sea and Danube, March 13, 1871; the Berlin Treaty for the Affairs of the East of July 13, 1878; the Navigation of the Danube of March 10, 1883; and the Act for the freedom of trade in the States of the Congo of February 26, 1885.

Belgium is a Constitutional Monarchy. By the Treaty of London of November 15, 1831, between Austria, Belgium, England, France, and Russia, Belgium, within the limits thereby fixed, was constituted an independent and perpetually neutral State, and bound to observe this neutrality with regard to other States. The territory was made to comprise the provinces of South Brabant, Liège, Namur, Hainault, West Flanders, East Flanders,