STUDIES IN ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. DEFINITIONS. FIGURES OF SPEECH. A figure of speech is a deviation from the literal form of expression. Figures bear the same relation to discourse that embellishments bear to architecture. The figures of speech which are most frequently employed may be divided into two classes: 1. Grammatical Figures; 2. Rhetorical Figures. I. GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. The chief grammatical figures are Ellipsis, Enallage, and Pleonasm. 1. Ellipsis is the omission of such letters or words as are necessary to complete the sense and construction. The ellipsis of letters may be as follows: a. Aphæresis, or the omission of a letter or letters from the beginning of a word; as, 'gan for began. b. Syncope, or the omission of a letter or letters from the middle of a word; as, lov'd for loved. c. Apocope, or the omission of a letter or letters from the end of a word; as, tho' for though. The second variety of ellipsis is that of words, particularly connectives. a. The omission of the relative pronoun; as, This is the letter I wrote, for This is the letter which I wrote. b. The omission of the conjunction; as, He came, saw, conquered, for He came, and saw, and conquered. The third variety of ellipsis is that of an entire clause; as, Astonishing! for This is astonishing. 2. Enallage signifies a change of words. The two most common forms of enallage are the following: a. The use of one part of speech for another; as, The winds blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle. b. The use of one case for another; as, A President than whom none was more beloved. 3. Pleonasm consists in the use of more words than are necessary; as, He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. II. RHETORICAL FIGURES. The chief rhetorical figures are the following: 5. Metonymy; 1. Simile; 9. Hyperbole ; 10. Irony; 3. Antithesis; 7. Personification; 11. Climax; 4 Allegory; 8. Apostrophe; 12. Alliteration. 1. Simile is a comparison of objects based upon regemblance; as, Friendship is like the sun's eternal rays. 2. Metaphor is an implied comparison or an abridged simile; as, Athens, the eye of Greece, Mother of arts and eloquence. 3. Antithesis is a comparison based upon contrast; as, Ignorance is the curse of God-knowledge, the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. 4. Allegory is an extended metaphor, in which the figure runs through an entire work; as, The Pilgrim's Progress. Among the varieties of allegory are (a.) Parables, based upon possibilities, as found in the Sacred Scriptures; (b.) Fables, based upon impossibilities, as found in profane history. Ex. Esop's Fables. 5. Metonymy is a figure in which one object is described by the name of another. It may exist in four forms: (a.) Cause for effect; as, Ye have Moses and the prophets. That is, authors for writings. (b.) Effect for cause; as, There is death in the cup. That is, death instead of poison. (c.) The container for the thing contained; as, The miser loves his purse. That is, purse for money. (d.) The sign for the thing signified; as, The pen is the civilizer of the world. That is, pen for literature, or the spread of knowledge. 6. Synecdoche is a figure in which a name is given to an object that suggests more or less than we intend. Synecdoche may take either of two forms: (a.) A part for the whole; as, No European keel had entered the harbor. That is, keel for vessel. (b.) The whole for a part; as, All the world wondered. That is, world for people. 7. Personification is that figure in which the attri butes of living beings are ascribed to things inanimate. Personification may exist in either of two forms: (a.) In the use of an adjective; as, The rippling, laughing brooks flow merrily on. (6.) In the use of a verb; as, How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 8. Apostrophe is a figure in which the absent is addressed as though present. Apostrophe may be (a.) Pure Apostrophe; as, O Absalom! would God I haa died for thee! (b.) Apostrophe combined with Personification; as, Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean! roll. 9. Hyperbole is a figure in which the object is either exaggerated or disparaged; as, The diamonds in thine eyes might furnish crowns for all the queens of earth. 10. Irony is a figure employed to express the opposite of the idea entertained; as, For Brutus is an honorable man; So are they all—all honorable men. 11. Climax is a figure in which the strength of the ought increases to the close of the sentence; as, The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent--augmented into a river-expanded into a sea. 12. Alliteration is a repetition of the same initial letter; as, Amid the lingering light. SENTENCES. Sentences are of two principal classes-Grammatical and Rhetorical. Grammatically, sentences are divided according to form and use. In form sentences are either Simple, Compler, or Compound. A Simple Sentence is one which contains a single proposition. A Complex Sentence is one which contains a prin cipal proposition modified by one or more subordinate propositions. A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or more principal propositions. According to their use sentences are either Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory. A Declarative Sentence is one used to affirm or deny. An Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask a question. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express a command or an entreaty. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclamation. Rhetorically, sentences are divided into Loose and Periodic. A Loose Sentence is one which may be separated into parts without destroying the sense; as, Leaves have their time to fall, | And flowers to wither | at the north wind's breath. | REMARK.-Notice that the sentence may end at any one of the three points marked, and make sense. A Periodic Sentence is one in which the complete sense is not expressed until the close; as, Over and over again, No matter which way I turn, |