applied elsewhere in the New Testament to the subduing of an unclean spirit, and the stilling of the raging sea-both in the Gospel of Mark;1 "leaving you an example, that ye should follow his steps," the literal meaning of the word translated "example" being the copy-head set before a scholar for his patient and persevering imitation; 2 "your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about, seeking whom he may devour." Akin to the pictorial style of the epistle is the "wealth of epithets" by which it is distinguished, e.g. "an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not away." 4 It appears that in writing this epistle Peter had the assistance of "Silvanus, our faithful brother,"5 as his amanuensis, who is, no doubt, to be identified with the "Silas " mentioned in the Book of Acts, and the Silvanus of St. Paul's epistles. 2. The Readers. By "To the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.” The meaning of this address has been much disputed. some it has been taken in a literal sense as denoting the Christian Jews of the Dispersion residing in the various parts of Asia Minor that are here specified. But this is inconsistent with the language used by the apostle to his readers, which, in several passages,7 would lead us to sup not fashioning yourselves according to your former lusts in the time of your ignorance"; ii. 9, 10: "... that ye may shew forth the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light: which in time past were no people, but now are the people of God: which had not obtained mercy, but now have obtained mercy"; cf. Rom. ix. 25 (where the same words of Hosea [ii. 23] are applied to the calling of the Gentiles): "As he saith also in Hosea, I will call that my people, which was not my people; And her beloved, which was not beloved"; iii. 6: "as Sarah obeyed Abraham, calling him lord whose children ye now are, if ye do well, and are not put in fear by any : pose that the readers of the epistle were largely Gentiles, as we know the members of the Churches in Asia Minor for the most part were.1 The words "sojourners of the Dispersion" are probably to be interpreted in a spiritual sense with reference to the heavenly Canaan, from which Christ's followers on earth. may be regarded as temporary exiles, the Churches to which they belong being scattered branches of a commonwealth that has its home and its metropolis in heaven.2 This interpretation is justified by the whole tone of the epistle, which gives a spiritual meaning to the blessings of the Old Covenant. It accords in particular with the words, "Beloved, I beseech you as sojourners and pilgrims, to abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul." 3. Date and Place of Composition. The only thing we have to guide us as to the place of writing is in one of the closing salutations: "She that is in Babylon, elect together with you, saluteth you."5 By this we may understand the Church in Rome, which city is here called "Babylon," as the new seat of oppression and cruelty to God's people. This was the view generally held by the early Church Fathers; it is in accordance terror"; iv. 3: "For the time past may suffice to have wrought the desire of the Gentiles, and to have walked in lasciviousness, lusts, wine-bibbings, revellings, carousings, and abominable idola tries. 1 For information regarding the Church in Pontus see Acts ii. 9, xviii. 2; in Galatia, pp. 127 ff.; in Cappadocia, Acts ii. 9; in Asia, Acts xviii. 24-26, XX. 17-35, and the epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians. These Churches had received the Gospel from Paul and his associates. Hence the value of Peter's testimony in v. 12 (quoted p. 234, note 5). 2"The First Epistle of St. Peter is addressed to all the Christian communities of Asia Minor north of the Taurus." -Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire. with the figurative language of the epistle, referred to in the previous section; and it accounts for the strong resemblance between this epistle and that of Paul to the Romans, with which Peter could scarcely have failed to become acquainted during his residence in the capital.1 It is from the statements of Dionysius of Corinth, Tertullian, and Caius of Rome). "I 1 E.g. i. 14, 15: "as children of obedience, not fashioning yourselves according to your former lusts in the time of your ignorance: but like as he which called you is holy, be ye yourselves also holy in all manner of living"; cf. Rom. xii. 2: "And be not fashioned according to this world: but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind, that ye may prove what is the good and acceptable and perfect will of God." ii. 5: 'Ye also, as living stones, are built up a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God through Jesus Christ"; cf. Rom. xii. 1: beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God, which is your reasonable service." ii. 6-8: "Because it is contained in scripture, Behold, I lay in Zion a chief corner stone, elect, precious: And he that believeth on him shall not be put to shame. For you therefore which believe is the preciousness: but for such as disbelieve, The stone which the builders rejected, The same was made the head of the corner; and, A stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence; for they stumble at the word, being disobedient: whereunto also they were appointed"; cf. Rom. ix. 32, 33: "Wherefore? Because they sought it not by faith, but as it were by works. They stumbled at the stone of stumbling; even as it is written, Behold, I lay in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence: And he that believeth on him shall not be put to shame.' both epistles there is here a combination of Isa. viii. 14 and xxviii. 16.) ii. 10; cf. Rom. ix. 25 (see p. 234, note 7). ii. 13, 14: "Be subject to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake: whether it be to the king, as supreme; or unto governors, as sent by him for vengeance on evil-doers and for praise to them that do well"; cf. Rom. xiii. 1-4: 'Let every soul be in subjection to the higher powers for there is no power but of " (In But God; and the powers that be are ordained of God. Therefore he that resisteth the power, withstandeth the ordinance of God: and they that withstand shall receive to themselves judgement. For rulers are not a terror to the good work, but to the evil. And wouldest thou have no fear of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise from the same: for he is a minister of God to thee for good. if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he beareth not the sword in vain : for he is a minister of God, an avenger for wrath to him that doeth evil." iii. 9: "not rendering evil for evil"; cf. Rom. xii. 17: "Render to no man evil for evil." iii. 22: "who is on the right hand of God, having gone into heaven; angels and authorities and powers being made subject unto him"; cf. Rom. viii. 34: 'Who is he that shall condemn? It is Christ Jesus that died, yea rather, that was raised from the dead, who is at the right hand of God, who also maketh intercession for us.' iv. 3, 7: "For the time past may suffice to have wrought the desire of the Gentiles, and to have walked in lasciviousness, lusts, wine-bibbings, revellings, carousings, and abominable idolatries: But the end of all things is at hand: be ye therefore of sound mind, and be sober unto prayer"; cf. Rom. xiii. 11-13: "And this, knowing the season, that now it is high time for you to awake out of sleep: for now is salvation nearer to us than when we first believed. The night is far spent, and the day is at hand: let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armour of light. Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in revelling and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and jealousy." iv. 9: "using hospitality one to another without murmuring"; cf. Rom. xii. 13: given to hospitality.' iv. 10: "according as each hath received a gift, ministering it among yourselves, as good stewards of the manifold grace of God"; cf. Rom. xii. 6: "And having gifts differing according to the grace that was given to us, whether prophecy, let us prophesy ... almost certain that Babylon has this meaning in the Revelation; and it would add to the force of Peter's exhortations to courage and patience, that he was himself, when he wrote, in the very thick of the conflict.1 With regard to the date of its composition, the probability seems to be that the letter was written shortly after the outbreak of the Neronian persecution, when the Churches in the provinces were beginning to experience the effects of the imperial example at Rome about 64-5 A.D.2 The readers are addressed as liable to perse 66 according to the proportion of our faith." Christ; who is on the right hand of God, having gone into heaven; angels and authorities and powers being made subject unto him"; cf. Eph. i. 20, 21: "which he wrought in Christ, when he raised him from the dead, and made him to sit at his right hand in the heavenly places, far above all rule, and authority, and power, and dominion, and every name that is named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to come." v. 5: "Likewise, ye younger, be subject unto the elder. Yea, all of you gird yourselves with humility, to serve one another"; cf. Eph. v. 21: "subjecting yourselves one to another in the fear of Christ." For resemblances to the Epistle of James, see p. 225, note 3. These go far to prove that the author of this epistle made use of that work, addressed to Jewish Christians by the recognised head of the Church at Jerusalem; and, as Salmon points out (Introduction, p. 489), this is a circumstance at variance with the Tübingen theory that I Peter is the work of a Paulinist of the second century, who wished to arrogate the authority of Peter's name for his antiJewish views. 1 "That this epistle was written from Rome, I cannot doubt. It is impregnated with Roman thought to a degree beyond any other book in the Bible; the relation to the state and its officers forms an unusually large part of the whole. . . . That Babylon should be understood as the Chaldæan city appears to conflict so entirely with all record and early tradition, as to hardly need discussion."-Prof. Ramsay. 2" When Nero had once established the principle in Rome, his action served as a precedent in every province. After 64 A.D. the example set by the cution, both of a social and a legal character, the very name of Christian having become a term of reproach, and still worse evils being imminent. Indeed, the signs of persecution are so pronounced in this epistle, that it has, on this account, been assigned by many to a later date.1 4. Character and Contents. This epistle breathes the spirit of practical earnestness so characteristic of its author. The Greek word "to do good "2 occurs no less than nine times in the course of the five chapters. There is no want of allusion to Christian privilege and Christian doctrine; but it is always for a practical purpose, as furnishing motives for Christian obedience. Of this we have an illustration in the frequent use of the words "wherefore," "therefore," "because," &c., by way of enforcing practical applications.3 The chief duty which the writer wishes to inculcate is that of patience under trial.1 Emperor necessarily guided the action of all Roman officials toward the Christians."-Prof. Ramsay. 1 See Note A at the end of this chapter. ii. 18-20: "Servants, be in subjection to your masters with all fear; not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward. For this is acceptable, if for conscience toward God a man endureth griefs, suffering wrongfully. For what glory is it, if, when ye sin, and are buffeted for it, ye shall take it patiently? but if, when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye shall take it patiently, this is acceptable with God"; iii. 13-17: "And who is he that will harm you, if ye be zealous of that which is good? But and if ye should suffer for righteousness' sake, blessed are ye: and fear not their fear, neither be troubled; but sanctify in your hearts Christ as Lord : being ready always to give answer to every man that asketh you a reason concerning the hope that is in you, yet with meekness and fear having a good conscience; that, wherein ye are spoken against, they may be put to shame who revile your good manner of life in Christ. For it is better, if the will of God should so will, that ye suffer for well-doing than for evil-doing"; iv. 12-17: "Beloved, think it not strange concerning the fiery trial among you, which cometh upon you to prove you, as though a strange thing happened unto you: but insomuch as ye are partakers of Christ's sufferings, rejoice; that at the revelation of his glory also ye may rejoice with exceeding joy. If ye are reproached for the name of Christ, blessed are ye; because the Spirit of glory and the Spirit of God resteth upon you. For let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief, or an evil-doer, or as a meddler in other men's matters but if a man suffer as a Christian, let him not be ashamed; but let him glorify God in this name. For the time is come for judgement to begin at the house of God: and if it begin first at us, what shall be the end of them that obey not the gospel of God?" ἀγαθοποιεῖν. "Where 3 διό, οὖν, διότι, &c. i. 13: fore girding up the loins of your mind, be sober and set your hope perfectly on the grace that is to be brought unto you at the revelation of Jesus Christ"; i. 16: "because it is written, Ye shall be holy; for I am holy"; ii. 1: "Putting away therefore all wickedness," &c. 4i. 6, 7: "Wherein ye greatly rejoice, though now for a little while, if need be, ye have been put to grief in manifold temptations, that the proof of your faith, |