equivalent in Hebrew; it also makes its Old Testament quotations direct from the Septuagint, in some cases even building an argument on forms of expression which do not occur in the Hebrew text.2 But although we cannot assign the epistle to St. Paul, this need not impair our sense of its value as an acknowledged portion of the New Testament. Its value is independent of its human authorship. "If it should be found that a noble picture which had been attributed to Raphael was not by that artist, there would not be one masterpiece the less, but one great master the more." 3 While the evidence is conclusive against the epistle having been written by Paul, there is yet reason to believe that it was the work of one of his school. The writer appears to have been acquainted with some of Paul's epistles; and he uses many words which are found no mine ears hast thou") אָזְנַיִם בָּרִיתָ לִוּ 3-Thiersch. opened"). 4 Cf. ii. 8: "Thou didst put all things in subjection under his feet. For in that he subjected all things unto him, he left nothing that is not subject to him. But now we see not yet all things subjected to him"; and I Cor. xv. 27: "For, He put all things in subjection under his feet. But when he saith, All things are put in subjection, it is evident that he is excepted who did subject all things unto him." ii. 10: "For it became him, for whom are all things, and through whom are all things, in bringing many sons unto glory"; and Rom. xi. 36: "For of him, and through him, and unto him, are all things. To him be the glory for ever. Amen." ii. 14: "that through death he might bring to nought (καταργήσῃ, a Pauline use of the word which also occurs in the two following passages, and is translated "abolished") him that had the power of death, that is, the devil"; 2 Tim. i. 10: who abolished death, and brought life and incorruption to light through the gospel"; and 1 Cor. xv. 26: "The last enemy that shall be abolished is death." V. 12-14: For every one that partaketh of milk is without experience of the word of righteousness; for he is a babe. But solid food is for fullgrown men, even those who by reason of use have their senses exercised to discern good and evil"; and 1 Cor iii. 2: "I fed you with milk, not with meat; for ye were not yet able to bear it: nay, not even now are ye able." x. 30: "For we know him that said, Vengeance belongeth unto me, I will recompense. And again, The Lord shall judge his people"; and Rom. xii. 19: Avenge not yourselves, beloved, but give place unto wrath for it is written, Vengeance belongeth unto me; I will recompense, saith the Lord." xii. 14: "Follow after peace with all men and Rom. xii. 18: "If it be possible, as much as in you lieth, be at peace with all men.' " Paul's writings, He also refers where in the New Testament except in or in his speeches as reported by Luke.1 to Timothy as a personal friend-although in different terms from those used by the apostle.2 By which of Paul's friends or associates the letter was written it is difficult to say. Neither Clement nor Luke (whose names were suggested as early as the third century) can have been the author, so greatly do their styles differ from that of the epistle. Luther's conjecture that Apollos may have been the writer, is favoured by the description of the latter in the Book of Acts, viewed in connection with the internal characteristics of the epistle, and it has been widely accepted. But if Apollos was the writer, it is difficult to account for the complete disappearance of his name from the traditions of the Church, more especially in the East. There is another name, in itself not at all an improbable one, for which we have the authority of Tertullian of Carthage, who wrote in the beginning of the third century. That presbyter refers to Barnabas as the author of the epistle, in terms which would imply that this was no new supposition; and his testimony is all the more important because he had been at one time resident in Rome and knew what was the current belief of the Church there. In 1 Ε.g. νενεκρωμένος as good as dead" (xi. 12, and Rom. iv. 19); ἐφάπαξ once" (vii. 27, &c., Rom. vi. 10, I Cor. xv. 6). In ii. 2, there are three such words, viz., evdikos (“just "), παράβασις (“ transgression”), παρακοή ("disobedience"). A complete list is given in the Introduction to the Epistle in the Speaker's Commentary. 2 xiii. 23: "Know ye that our brother Timothy hath been set at liberty; with whom, if he come shortly, I will see you." 3 Acts xviii. 24-28: "Now a certain Jew named Apollos, an Alexandrian by race, a learned man, came to Ephesus; and he was mighty in the scriptures. This man had been instructed in the way of the Lord; and being fervent in spirit, he spake and taught carefully the things concerning Jesus, knowing only But the baptism of John: and he began to 4 There is extant an epistle addressed to the Hebrews by Barnabas, a man of such authority that Paul ranked him with himself, I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working.' ""Tertullian then quotes Heb. vi. 4-8. many respects the name of Barnabas answers the requirements of the case. As a Jewish Christian who enjoyed the confidence of the apostles and was on intimate terms with the Church at Jerusalem, of which he had been an early benefactor; as a Levite, familiar with the usages and customs of the Jewish sanctuary; as a native, and frequent visitor, of Cyprus, sufficiently acquainted with Hellenistic literature to be able to preach to Hellenists, and at one time (according to an ancient tradition) a teacher, like his nephew Mark, at Alexandria,1 with which Cyprus was closely connected; as a good man full of the Holy Ghost and of faith, whose surname of Barnabas, "son of exhortation" (conferred on him by the apostles), marked him out as a man of great persuasive influence-in all these respects this Church-leader was well fitted to be the writer of a "word of exhortation "2-in the Greek language and after the Alexandrian mode of thought-to the wavering and distracted Hebrews.3 2. The Readers. "To the Hebrews." We have no reason to doubt that this part of the superscription—which probably formed the whole of the original, and is of immemorial antiquity— gives a correct indication of the readers for whom the epistle was intended. The whole tenor of the epistle implies that it was written for Jewish Christians. But various allusions show that it was not intended merely for Hebrew Christians in general, but for some definite community.* Which of the Hebrew communities, in particular, is addressed has been much disputed. Alexandria, Antioch, 1 The tradition is found in the Clementine Homilies; but according to the Recognitions, Barnabas preached at an early period in Rome, 2 xiii. 22: "But I exhort you, brethren, bear with the word of exhortation." 3 Acts iv. 36, 37; ix. 26, 27; xi. 1930; xiii. I; xv. 39. 4 v. II, 12: "Of whom we have many things to say, and hard of interpreta tion, seeing ye are become dull of hearing. For when by reason of the time ye ought to be teachers, ye have need again that some one teach you the rudiments of the first principles of the oracles of God; and are become such as have need of milk, and not of solid food." vi. 9, 10: "But, beloved, we are persuaded better things of you, and things that accompany salvation, though Ephesus, Rome, have all been suggested. Something may be said for each of them,1 especially Antioch; but from the way in which the Gentiles are entirely ignored in the epistle -the word "people," which frequently occurs, being always used to designate the Jews 2-it would seem most probable that the letter was intended for Christians in Jerusalem or in some other part of Palestine. It was only in Palestine that Churches were to be found entirely composed of Jewish Christians; and the troubles that overtook these congregations soon afterwards in connection with the destruction of Jerusalem would go far to account for the ignorance and uncertainty of the early Church as to the authorship and the original destination of this epistle-an oblivion that is otherwise difficult to explain. Moreover, it was in Palestine that the temptations to relapse into Judaism, against which the writer is so anxious to guard his readers, were most formidable. The sacerdotal splendour of the ancient sanctuary threw into the shade the simple forms of Christian worship; and the flames of patriotic zeal burned more fiercely in the Holy Land than among the Jews of the Dispersion. The Hebrew Christians residing there must have felt themselves more and more under the necessity of choosing between their country and their faith, between a revolt against the Romans and a patient waiting for the coming of the Saviour. Exposed to persecution and excommunication at the hands of their fanatical and exasperated country : "But we thus speak for God is not un- 7, 18, 19, 23: "Remember them that had the rule over you, which spake unto you the word of God; and considering the issue of their life, imitate their faith. Pray for us: And I exhort you the more exceedingly to do this, that I may be restored to you the Know ye that our brother Timothy hath been set at liberty; with whom, if he come shortly, I will see you." 1 The language of xii. 4, however, "Ye have not yet resisted unto blood,' could hardly have been addressed to Christians at Rome after 64 A.D. Cf. P. 224, note 3. sooner. 2 Xaos. vii. 5, II, 27, &c. men, deeply attached to the religion of their fathers and with a strong love of outward ceremonial, disappointed by the delay of the Second Coming and by the rejection of the Gospel on the part of so many of their kindred, they stood in urgent need of the consolations and the warnings which are addressed to them in this epistle. 3. Date and Place of Composition. The only clue to guide us as to the place of writing is to be found in the message at the close of the epistle: 'They of Italy salute you."1 This may either mean that the writer was sending greetings from the Church in Italy, or from Italian Christians resident in some foreign city from which he wrote. The latter would be quite natural and intelligible if the epistle was going to some Church in Italy, whose members were receiving a special greeting from their countrymen abroad. But, as we have seen, the epistle had probably a different destination; and we may therefore conclude that it was written from some place in Italy-the more so as it informs its readers of Timothy's liberation, which took place presumably at Rome, whither he had been summoned by St. Paul in his last imprisonment.2 On this supposition the date of the epistle would be about 68 A.D., which tallies with other indications of time in the epistle. That it was written before the Fall of Jerusalem is evident not only from the allusions to the sacrificial system as still going on, and to the old covenant as "becoming old" and "nigh unto vanishing away," but worshippers, having been once cleansed, would have had no more conscience of sins? But in those sacrifices there is a remembrance made of sins year by year." 4 viii. 13: "In that he saith, A new covenant, he hath made the first old. But that which is becoming old and waxeth aged is nigh unto vanishing away." |