THE

GREEK PHILOSOPHERS,

2.

BY

ALFRED WILLIAM BENN

VINNQUITVO

Εὑρηκέναι μὲν οὖν τινὰς τῶν ἀρχαίων καὶ μακαρίων φιλοσόφων
τὸ ἀληθὲς δεῖ νομίζειν· τίνες δὲ οἱ τυχόντες μάλιστα καὶ πῶς ἂν
καὶ ἡμῖν σύνεσις περὶ τούτων γένοιτο ἐπισκέψασθαι προσήκει

PLOTINUS

Quamquam ab his philosophiam et omnes ingenuas disciplinas
habemus sed tamen est aliquid quod nobis non liceat, liceat illis
CICERO

REEST LIBRARY

(FILE

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE

24263

B171
B4

v. 2

(The rights of translation and of reproduction

are

reserved)

I. Why the systems of Plato and Aristotle failed to secure a hold on contem-

porary thought, I-Fate of the schools which they founded, 3-Revival of earlier

philosophies and especially of naturalism, 3-Antisthenes and the Cynics, 4—

Restoration of naturalism to its former dignity, 6.`

II. Zeno and Crates, 7-Establishment of the Stoic school, 8-Cleanthes and

Chrysippus, 9—Encyclopaedic character of the Stoic teaching, 9—The great

place which it gave to physical science, 10-Heracleitean reaction against the

dualism of Aristotle, 11-Determinism and materialism of the Stoics, 12-Their

concessions to the popular religion, 14.

III. The Stoic theory of cognition purely empirical, 15-Development of

formal logic, 16-New importance attributed to judgment as distinguished from

conception, 16—The idea of law, 17—Consistency as the principle of the Stoic

ethics, 18-Meaning of the precept, Follow Nature, 19-Distinction between

pleasure and self-interest as moral standards, 20-Absolute sufficiency of virtue

for happiness, 21--The Stoics wrong from an individual, right from a social point

of view, 22-Theory of the passions, 23-Necessity of volition and freedom of

judgment, 24-Difficulties involved in an appeal to purpose in creation, 24.

IV. The Stoic paradoxes follow logically from the absolute distinction between

right and wrong, 25--Attempt at a compromise with the ordinary morality by the

doctrines (i.) of preference and objection, 26—(ii.) of permissible feeling, 27—(iii.)

of progress from folly to wisdom, 27-and (iv.) of imperfect duties, 27-Cicero's

De Officiis, 28-Examples of Stoic casuistry, 29-Justification of suicide, 30.

V. Three great contributions made by the Stoics to ethical speculation, (i.)

The inwardness of virtue, including the notion of conscience, 31-Prevalent mis-

conception with regard to the Erinyes, 32-(ii.) The individualisation of duty,

33-Process by which this idea was evolved, 35-Its influence on the Romans of

the empire, 36—(iii.) The idea of humanity, 36-Its connexion with the idea of

Nature, 37-Utilitarianism of the Stoics, 38.

VI. The philanthropic tendencies of Stoicism partly neutralised by its extreme

individualism, 40-Conservatism of Marcus Aurelius, 41-The Stoics at once un-

pitying and forgiving, 42-Humility produced by their doctrine of universal de-

pravity, 42-It is not in the power of others to injure us, 43-The Stoic satirists

and Roman society, 44.

VII. The idea of Nature and the unity of mankind, 44-The dynamism of

Heracleitus dissociated from the teleology of Socrates, 46-Standpoint of Marcus

Aurelius, 46—Tendency to extricate morality from its external support, 47—

Modern attacks on Nature, 48-Evolution as an ethical sanction, 49—The vicious

circle of evolutionist ethics, 50-The idea of humanity created and maintained by

the idea of a cosmos, 51-The prayer of Cleanthes, 52.

I. Stationary character of Epicureanism, 53-Prevalent tendency to exaggerate

its scientific value, 55—Opposition or indifference of Epicurus to the science of

his time, 57.

II. Life of Epicurus, 58-His philosophy essentially practical, 59-The rela-

tion of pleasure to virtue : Aristippus, 60-Pessimism of Hegesias, 61-Hedonism

of Plato's Protagoras, 61-The Epicurean definition of pleasure, 62—Reaction of

Plato's idealism on Epicurus, 63-He accepts the negative definition of pleasure,

64-Inconsistency involved in his admissions, 65.

III. Deduction of the particular virtues: Temperance, 66-Points of contact

with Cynicism, 66-Evils bred by excessive frugality, 67-Sexual passion dis-

couraged by Epicureanism, 67-Comparative indulgence shown to pity and grief,

68-Fortitude inculcated by minimising the evils of pain, 69—Justice as a regard

for the general interest, 70-The motives for abstaining from aggression purely

selfish, 70-Indifference of the Epicureans to political duties, 73-Success of

Epicureanism in promoting disinterested friendship, 74.

IV. Motives which led Epicurus to include physics in his teaching, 75—His

attacks on supernaturalism directed less against the old Polytheism than against

the religious movement whence Catholicism sprang, 76—Justification of the tone

taken by Lucretius, 78-Plato and Hildebrand, 78-Concessions made by

Epicurus to the religious reaction, 80-His criticism of the Stoic theology, 81.

V. Why Epicurus adopted the atomic theory, 82-Doctrine of infinite com-

binations, 83-Limited number of chances required by the modern theory of evo-

lution, 84-Objections to which Democritus had laid himself open, 85-They are

not satisfactorily met by Epicurus, 85—One naturalistic theory as good as another,`

87-except the conclusions of astronomy, which are false, 87.

VI. Materialism and the denial of a future life, 88-Epicurus tries to argue

away the dread of death, 89-His enterprise inconsistent with human nature, 90

-The belief in future torments is the dread of death under another form, 92—

How the prospect of death adds to our enjoyment of life, 93--Its stimulating

effect on the energies, 94-The love of life gives meaning and merit to courage, 95.

-

VII. The Epicurean theory of sensation and cognition, 95—Negative character

of the whole system, 98-Theory of human history: the doctrine of progressive

civilisation much older than Epicurus, 98-Opposition between humanism and

naturalism on this point, 99—Passage from a drama of Euphorion, 99.

VIII, Lucretius: his want of philosophic originality, 100—His alleged im-

provements on the doctrine of Epicurus examined, 101 - His unreserved acceptance

of the Epicurean ethics, 103-In what the difference between Lucretius and

Epicurus consists, 103-Roman enthusiasm for physical science, 104--Sympathy

of Lucretius with early Greek thought, 105-The true heroine of the De Rerum

Naturâ, 105-Exhibition of life in all its forms, 106-Venus as the beginning

and end of existence, 106-Elucidation of the atomic theory by vital phenomena,

107-Imperfect apprehension of law: the foedera Naturai and the foedera fati, 108

—Assimilation of the great cosmic changes to organic processes, 110—False beliefs

considered as necessary products of human nature, III- and consequently as fit

subjects for poetic treatment, 112-High artistic value of the De Rerum Naturâ,

113-Comparison between Lucretius and Dante, 113.

IX. Merits and defects of Epicurus: his revival of atomism and rejection of

supernaturalism, 114-His theory of ethics, 115-His contributions to the science of

human nature, 116-His eminence as a professor of the art of happiness, 116-His

influence on modern philosophy greatly exaggerated by M. Guyau, 117—Unique

combination of circumstances to which Epicureanism owed its origin, 119.

I. Philosophic embassy from Athens to Rome, 120-Lectures of Carneades on

Justice versus Expediency, 121–Public and private morality in Rome : position

of Cato, 122-His motion for the dismissal of the embassy, 123-Carneades and

Plato, 123.

II. Different meanings of the word scepticism, 123-False scepticism as an

ally of orthodoxy, 125-Vein of doubt running through Greek mythology, 126—

Want of seriousness in Homer's religion, 127-Incredulous spirit shown by some

of his characters, 127-Similar tendency in Aeschylus and Herodotus, 128-

Negative and sceptical elements in early Greek thought, 128.

III. Protagoras the true father of philosophical scepticism, 129—The three

theses of Gorgias, 130—Sceptical idealism of the Cyrenaic school, 132—Scepticism

as an ally of religion with Socrates and Plato, 133-The Parmenides, the Sophist,

and the Timaeus, 134-Synthesis of affirmation and negation in metaphysics

and in dialectics, 135-Use of scepticism as a moral sanction by the Megarians,

136.

IV. Life and opinions of Pyrrho, 137-Denial of first principles: present

aspect of the question, 139-Practical teaching of Pyrrho, 140-Encouragement

given to scepticism by the concentration of thought on human interests, 141–

Illogical compromise of Epicurus, 143-Parasitic character of the sceptical

school, 143.

V. Origin of the New Academy, 144-Character and position of Arcesilaus,

145-The Stoic theory of certainty, 146– Criticism of Arcesilaus : his method of

infinitesimal transitions, 147-Systematic development and application of the

Academic principle by Carneades, 148-His analysis of experience, 149-His

attack on syllogistic and inductive reasoning, 150-His criticism of the Stoic and

Epicurean theologies, 151-Sceptical conformity to the established religion, 153

Theory of probable evidence as a guide to action, 154—A priori reasoning of

the ancient sceptics, 155-Their resemblance in this respect to modern agnostics,

156- and also in their treatment of ethics, 157-Obedience to Nature inculcated

by Carneades, 158.