nays on any question be "entered on the journal." This is to let the voters at home know how their representatives voted on such measures.

Conference Committees. When the bill passes one house it is sent to the other, where it goes through the same procedure as it went through in the house in which it was introduced. If the other house amends the bill materially, conference committees consisting of members of both houses may be appointed to agree on the provisions of the bill. Amendments made in one house must be agreed to by the other or the bill fails of passage.

Having received the approval of both houses, the bill, now in the form of an act, is signed by the presiding officers of both houses, and is then presented to the executive.

The Veto Power. If the executive approves the bill it thereupon becomes law; but if he does not approve the bill he returns it, with his objections, to the house in which it originated. The national Constitution provides that by a two-thirds vote in each house a bill may be enacted into law over the President's veto. There are similar provisions in the state constitutions.

Simplicity in Laws. To be effective, laws should be direct and clear in expression, and as concise and simple as the subject matter permits. Too many statutes are so weighted down with details that the courts are kept busy with interpretations on petty matters. The executives, too, find such laws difficult, if not impossible, of fair enforcement. In this respect European legislatures often pass better laws than do many American legislatures.

It is also important that laws be as few in number as is consistent with the needs. We have seen the close relation between customs and laws. Customs may be even more restrictive than laws. Savage tribes have no written laws. But their customs and traditions bind the freedom of their members more firmly than do the many laws in a civilized country. Life today is complex, as we have found out,

and many laws are therefore required. But laws may be too numerous to accomplish their ends.

The Importance of Good Laws. Good laws are understandable. They can be enforced, because the people want them. For this reason old laws must be frequently amended, in order that the rules of law may meet the needs of today. To get good laws citizens must attend well to their own part in law making. Their part is to elect good law makers, to learn about proposed laws, and to express intelligent opinions about them. Moreover, they must insist on publicity of measures before legislatures, and require fair treatment of the minorities in legislative bodies. It has sometimes happened that the majority in a legislature has paid little or no attention to the wishes of the minoritya practice which has led to the expression, "the tyranny of the majority."

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION AND DISCUSSION

1. Resolve your class into a legislative body. Elect officers. Introduce and pass a law having to do with your school when at work or on the playground.

2. Name some laws that affect you and the community in which you live that have been

(a) Passed by the national government;

(b) Passed by the state governments;

(c) Passed by the city council;

(d) Passed by the county or township commissioners.

3. What are the provisions of the national Constitution (see pages 587 to 596) as to

(a) Passage of laws;

(b) Veto of laws.

4. Let one pupil get a copy of the statutes of your state and tell the class something about what it contains.

5. From the table on page 307 tell how many representatives your state sends to Congress. How does this number compare with those sent from neighboring states? Are any of these elected at

large?

6. What is the name of the Representative from your district? What are the names of the two Senators from your state?

7. How many members has your state in its law-making body?

8. How many of these belong to the Upper House? to the Lower House?

9. How are the members of the Upper House apportioned among the counties? of the Lower House?

10. What are the qualifications for the members of each House? What men hold these offices from your county?

11. Judging by the industries existing in your community, what sort of law would your representatives in the State Legislature be likely to introduce? in the United States Congress?

12. How does a law differ from (a) a resolution? (b) an amendment? (c) a proclamation by the President? (d) a court decision? 13. May a man born in Italy but naturalized under our United States laws ever be a member of Congress? Prove your opinion on this question.

14. Is a majority always right? If it is not, should its will always prevail over the minority?

15. The whole class, or a committee, should visit your local legislature when it is in session and afterwards discuss what went on.

SUGGESTED READINGS FOR COMMITTEE REPORTS

1. Law making in Ancient Greece, as told by Van Loon in his Story of Mankind or by Davis in Volume I of his Readings in Ancient History.

2. Law making in Ancient Rome, as described in Davis' Readings in Ancient History, Volume II.

3. Law making in the Roman Empire, Van Loon's Story of Mankind.

4. Law making among the early Anglo-Saxons, explained in Hayes' American Democracy, Chapter I.

Following these reports the class should compare these earlier methods with those of our own legislative assemblies.

Further reports might be made on the English and French lawmaking bodies-for example, as described in Hayes' Political and Social History of Modern Europe.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS AND

TEACHERS

1. Haskin's American Government: Chapter XX, How Congress Legislates; XXI, The House of Representatives; XXII, The Senate.

2. Williamson's Problems in American Democracy: Chapter XLIX, Municipal Government.

3. Magruder's American Government: Chapter III, Colonial Government; V, the Legislative Department.

4. Dawson's Organized Self-Government.

5. Winston Churchill's Coniston.

This novel is a story of the

political life of New England, and gives interesting accounts of town meetings and of state government.

CHAPTER XV

THE INTERPRETATION OF LAWS

"Justice is the great interest of man on earth. It is the ligament which holds civilized beings and civilized nations together."

-Daniel Webster

Classes are passing through the halls and up and down the stairs of a certain busy school. As one group of boys and girls hurries to the next recitation room, one of the girls stumbles and falls down the last two or three stair steps, spraining her ankle. The boy whose duty it is to keep the lines quiet and straight as they pass this point in the school accuses the boy following the girl of causing her to fall, saying, "I saw him shove her." The boy who is accused admits he bumped into the girl, but claims it was not intentional on his part, but that he was shoved by the boy who followed him. A heated argument ensues. Someone must settle the affair. The traffic boy finally tells all concerned that on a certain day they must come before a group of their fellow pupils, who will decide whether the matter was or was not an accident. Both sides will testify, and the "court," as it is called, will base its decision on the facts presented. This court is not only empowered to administer justice, but it may also punish offenders.

Just as this school dispute was settled in this court, so are matters of everyday importance to your parents and to your neighbors settled in city, state, and national courts. The main duty of the courts, therefore, is to administer justice. In cases involving alleged violations of law, whether between individuals or between individuals on the one hand and the city, the state, or the nation on the other,