the Civil War up to the outbreak of the great World War, from seven to eight dollars out of every ten dollars spent by the government went for such war purposes. Because of the large debt contracted by us in doing our part in the recent World War, an even larger part of the moneys raised by taxation-nine dollars out of ten, now goes to pay for past wars, current expenditures of the army and navy, and

One of the most inspiring sights is the magnificent drilling of the cadets of the United States Military Academy.

pensions and interest on the war debt. In the chart on page 372 you will see that only eleven cents out of each dollar spent by the federal government in 1924 went for all civil expenditures combined, while eighty-nine cents out of every dollar went for maintaining the army, the pensions and care of soldiers, and the payments on obligations arising out of

wars.

Naval and military affairs are administered by the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy, respectively.

Army officers are trained at public expense at the United States Military Academy at West Point, while naval officers are trained at the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. Both schools are owned and supported by the Federal Government.

Our tradition is to keep a small army completely controlled by Congress. This is because our forefathers, in the days preceding the Revolution, had driven home to them the dangers of allowing the army to become so strong that it could usurp powers in time of peace which should belong to it only in case of a serious war. Therefore no money to support an army is granted for a longer period than two years. By this means the Congress of the United States may check the power of the army, limit its numbers, and control all that it does. We want order among nations without the heavy burden of taxation necessary to maintain large armies and navies. This country has always stood for reducing expensive preparations for war as one means of preventing war.

International Law and Order. As yet we have no international army to enforce peace between nations, or to protect and defend the rights of the smaller nations from encroachments by the larger countries. This is an ideal for future generations to develop.

International protection at present consists of a series of international laws based on various treaties and agreements between nations. These laws are simply promises by sovereign nations. As such they may be cast aside, as they were in many instances in the World War, or upheld, as we believe they should be.

How Laws Help. Laws establish rules and outline punishments due law breakers. Thus the law provides that murderers shall be punished by death or by life imprisonment. The Constitution of the United States guarantees a fair trial by jury to all who are charged with offenses against the United States. Extradition laws permit a

criminal arrested in one state to be removed for trial to the state where the crime was committed. The police force of a community is supported by the law-making power in its attempt to protect life and property.

The law that is applied as between individuals we call "civil" law. Such would be the laws relating to marriage and divorce; to contracts between individuals; and to wills and deeds.

"Criminal" law is the law dealing with such offenses against public order as murder, theft, wife beating, driving an automobile while intoxicated, jumping bail, contempt of court, and restraint of trade.

To make laws effective, penalties are provided for law breakers. These penalties in civil cases are chiefly in the form of payment of money for damages done to the injured individual. But in criminal cases the penalties provided

are fines and imprisonment.

Why Governments Can Use Force. To carry out law and to preserve order, force may have to be used by a government. It is in this that a government differs from an individual. Only the people as a whole, through their government, may use physical force to compel obedience. When one person tries to use force on another we have personal violence, and not public order. If, for example, a creditor could take the automobile of a debtor, there would certainly be violence and disorder. So the power to use force to compel obedience to law is given only to public officers.

Among savages the family or the clan avenge the murder of one of their own number by taking the life of some member of the family or clan to which the murderer belongs. Among savage tribes family protects family, and clan protects clan. Indeed, in some tribes today the mother, the wife, or the sister may voluntarily offer to give her life in the place of the life of the husband, the brother, or other member of the family who is found guilty of murder. Or, if a member of a higher caste is murdered by one in a lower caste, the lives

of two or even three of those in the lower caste may be required to requite the deed, even though it is clear that but one person committed the murder. The family feuds of the mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee are historical

Minor offenses were often punished in this hands. To assure a fair way by the early colonists. trial before an impartial

judge or jury, or both, we have come to place the punishment of crime solely in the hands of government. And as civilization has progressed, crimes are defined more and more definitely.

The Cost of Crime. Crime is an enormous burden that we all carry. Even if we do not lose directly through crime, we pay taxes to prevent crime and to catch criminals and punish them. The "crime bill" in the United States amounts to perhaps a billion dollars every year. Crime even robs us of happiness, for many live in continual fear of harm and loss-afraid even to be alone on the streets at night.

We must learn to reduce our crime cost. Punishment more prompt and sure will help now. Reformation and training of criminals, better training in school and on playground, better children from better parents (p. 477) will help later.

Jails, Reformatories, and Penitentiaries. Just as government only may use physical force to compel obedience, so may government only restrain the liberties of individuals

as penalties for violation of the law. Those who, as law breakers, show disrespect for the general welfare may be compelled to pay fines, or may be locked up in city jails or in state or national penitentiaries, or may be both fined and imprisoned. Those accused of petty offenses (misdemeanors) are tried in the lower courts, and if found guilty are put into city or county jails; while those found guilty of more severe offenses (crimes) are tried in the higher courts and confined in penitentiaries. Toreformatories are sent the young peopleusually from sixteen to twenty years of agewho are found guilty of crime, for reform rather than punishment. Most cities now provide special homes for detaining juvenile delinquents in order that they may not be thrown among the more hardened inmates of the local jail.

International Film Service, N. Y.

JUDGE BEN B. LINDSEY

The reason Judge Lindsey has the confidence of the boys is that he understands their point of view and gives them a square deal.

Juvenile Courts. At one time boys who were picked up by the police for petty offenses were put into jail with older criminals. The result was that the jail became a school of crime, the older criminals teaching the boys. Then it became evident that society was making criminals. Hence those who were interested in the preservation of law and order began asking themselves how to do away with this method of making