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both public and private, were erected, when wealth was so vastly increased as it must have been after the conquest of Carthage and western Asia; it could scarcely be called a splendid city before the reign of Augus'tus, who boasted that "he found it brick, and left it marble." When Corinth was subdued by Mum'mius, so little were the Romans acquainted with the fine arts, that many precious pieces of statuary were destroyed for the sake of their materials; but from that time taste was improved by a more constant intercourse with the Greeks, especially when Athens became the university of the empire. But the long civil wars between the aristocratic and democratic factions prevented the development of these improvements, until the battle of Ac'tium gave Rome tranquillity and a master. In the days of its greatest prosperity the circumference of Rome, enclosed by walls, was about twenty miles but there were also very extensive suburbs. The city had thirty gates, some authors say more, of which the most remarkable were the Tergeminal, the Carmental, the Triumphal, and the Naval; to which we may add the Cape'na, near the great aqueduct.

The most remarkable buildings were the amphitheatres, the Capitol with its temples, the senate-house, and the forum.

The first amphitheatre was the Cir'cus Max'imus, erected by Tarquinius Priscus; but so enlarged by subsequent additions, that it was capable of containing two hundred thousand spectators. In the arena were exhibited the cruel fights of gladiators, in which the Romans took a pleasure equally infamous and extravagant, together with races, exhibitions of strange animals, and combats of wild beasts. A still larger edifice was erected for the same purpose in the reign of Vespasian, whose massive ruins are called the Colos'seum. Theatres, public baths, and buildings for the exhibition of naumachiæ, or naval combats, were erected by the emperors, who seemed anxious to compensate the people for the loss of their liberty by the magnificence of their public shows and entertainments.

The Capitol was commenced on the Saturnian hill, which received the name Capitoline from a human head being found by the laborers digging the foundation, in the reign of Tarquin'ius Pris'cus. It was erected on the northern summit of the hill; the rocky eminence to the south was called the Tarpeian cliff, to commemorate the treason of Tarpeía; and public criminals were frequently executed by being precipitated from its peak. The temple of Jupiter Capitolínus was usually regarded as the national sanctuary of the Romans: it was begun by Tarquin'ius Pris'cus, and finished by Tarquin'ius Super bus, and it was almost yearly improved by the rich presents that successful generals and foreign princes, eager to conciliate the Romans, offered as votive gifts. Augus'tus alone presented gold and jewels exceeding five thousand pounds in value. During the civil wars between Marius and Sylla this temple was burnt to the ground; but it was rebuilt with greater splendor; and Cicero informs us, that the statue of Jupiter Capitolínus was erected on its pedestal at the very time that the conspiracy of Cat'iline was discovered. It was destroyed twice again during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian, but was restored each time with additional splendor. The Sibylline books, and other oracles, supposed to contain important predictions respecting the fate of the city,

were preserved in the sanctuary, under the charge of fifteen persons of the highest rank, called the Quindecémviri. Here, also, were preserved the chronological archives of the city. A nail was annually driven into the temple by the chief magistrate; and this curious custom is supposed to have been the first rude mode of marking the lapse of time.

There were several other temples on this hill, the most remarkable of which was that of Jupiter Feret'ius, erected by Rom'ulus where the spolia opima were deposited. The spolia opima were the trophies presented by a Roman general who had slain the leader of the enemy with his own hand; they were only thrice offered, by Rom'ulus, Cossus, and Marcellus. From the feret'rum, or bier, on which these spoils were borne to the temple, the deity was called Feret'rius.

The Capitol was the citadel of Rome, except in the reign of Núma, when the Quir'inal was chosen as the chief place of strength. This circumstance tends greatly to confirm Niebuhr's theory, that an ancient Sabine town, named Quir'ium, stood on that hill, which modern writers confounded with Cures: perhaps the double-faced Janus, whose temple was closed during peace, was the symbol of the united cities, and the opening of the temple gates was to enable the inhabitants of the one in time of war to assist the other.

In the valley between the Palatine and Capitoline hills was the forum, or place of public assembly and great market. It was surrounded with temples, halls for the administration of justice, called basilice, and public offices; it was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and statesmen, and with various trophies from conquered nations. Among these memorials of conquest were several rostra, or prows of ships taken at Antium, which were used to ornament the pulpits from which the magistrates and public orators harangued the general assemblies of the people: from this custom the phrase "to mount the rostrum" originated. In the middle of the forum was a drained marsh, called the Curtian lake, to which a singular legend was attached. Traditions recorded that an immense chasm had suddenly opened in this place, which the augurs declared could not be closed until the most precious things in Rome were thrown into it. Curtius, a Roman knight, armed and mounted, leaped into the yawning pit, declaring that nothing was more valuable than courage and patriotism; after which it is added that the fissure closed. A much more probable account is, that the place derived its name from a Sabine general named Cur'tius, smothered there while the place was as yet a

swamp.

In the forum was the celebrated temple of Jánus, built entirely of bronze, supposed to have been erected during the reign of Núma. Its gates were only closed three times in eight centuries, so incessant were the wars in which the Romans were engaged. Not far from this was the temple of Concord, in which the senate frequently assembled : storks were encouraged to build in the roof of the edifice, on account of the social instincts attributed to those birds. In the same quarter of the city was the temple of Ves'ta, where a perpetual fire was maintained by the Vestal virgins: in it were said to be preserved the Palla

dium, or sacred image of Pallas Min'erva, on which the fate of Troy depended, and other relics consecrated by superstition.

The senate-house was above the pulpits belonging to the public orators: it was said to have been originally erected by Tul'lus Hostil'ius but the senate had several other places of meeting, frequently assembling in the temples. Near it was the comitium, or court in which the patrician curia were convened: it was not roofed until the end of the second Punic war, soon after which the comitia curiáta fell gradually into disuse. This space, before it was covered, was called a temple; because templum properly signifies not merely an edifice, but an enclosure consecrated by the augurs. The principal theatres and public baths were erected in this vicinity.

The elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and the census or registration of the citizens, were held in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, which was also the favorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was originally a large common, which had formed part of the estate of the younger Tar'quin, and being confiscated after the banishment of that monarch, was dedicated to the god of war, because the Romans believed Mars to be the father of their founder. It long remained unimproved; but in the reign of Augus'tus it began to be surrounded by several splendid edifices; ornamental trees and shrubs were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected, under which the citizens might continue their exercises in rainy weather. Most of these improvements were due to Mar'cus Agrip'pa, the best general and wisest statesman in the court of Augus'tus. He erected, near the Cam'pus Martius, the celebrated Panthéon, or temple of all the gods; the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that has survived the ravages of time.* At present it is used as a Christian church, and is universally admired for its circular form, and the beautiful dome that forms its roof. Near the Panthéon were the gardens and public baths, which Agrip'pa at his death bequeathed to the Roman people.

Perhaps no public edifices at Rome were more remarkable than the aqueducts for supplying the city with water. Pure streams were sought at a great distance, and conveyed in these artificial channels, supported by arches, many of which were more than a hundred feet high, over steep mountains, deep valleys, and, what was still more difficult, dangerous morasses, which less enterprising architects would have deemed insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected during the censorship of Ap'pius Cæ'cus, about four hundred years after the foundation of the city; but under the emperors not fewer than twenty of these stupendous and useful structures were raised, which brought such an abundant supply of water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even at the present day, when only three of the aqueducts remain, after the lapse of centuries, the neglect of rulers, and the ravages of barbarians, no city in Europe has a better supply of wholesome water than Rome.

It would be tedious to enumerate all the public buildings that decorated "the Eternal City;" we may therefore conclude by observing, that Rome, when in the zenith of its glory, contained four hundred and

•The Collosseum in the Regent's Park is built on the model of the Pantheon.

twenty temples, five regular theatres, two amphitheatres, and seven circuses of vast extent: there were sixteen public baths, built of marble, and furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From the aqueducts a prodigious number of fountains were supplied, many of which were remarkable for their architectural beauty. The palaces, public halls, columns, porticoes, and obelisks, were without number; and to these must be added the triumphal arches erected by the later emperors.

The public roads in the various parts of the empire, but more especially in Italy, though less ostentatious than the aqueducts, were not inferior to them in utility and costliness. Of these the most remarkable was the Appian road, from Rome to Brundusium, through the Pomptine marshes, which were kept well drained during the flourishing ages of the empire, but by subsequent neglect became a pestilential swamp. This road extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was paved through its entire length with enormous square blocks of hard stone. Nineteen centuries have elapsed since it was formed, and yet many parts of it still appear nearly as perfect as when it was first made.

Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural beauty, but it far surpassed it in works of public utility. Every succeeding emperor deemed it necessary to add something to the edifices that had been raised for the comfort and convenience of the citizens: even after the seat of government had been transferred to Constantinople, we find the son of Constantine evincing his gratitude for the reception he met with in the ancient capital, by sending thither two magnificent obelisks from Alexandria in Egypt.

CHAPTER XVII.

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.-The Reigns of the Family of the Casars.

FROM B. C. 30 To A. D. 96.

THOUGH the battle of Ac'tium made Octávius Cæsar sole sovereign of the empire, the forms of the republic were faithfully preserved; the senate sat as a council of state, and, though little weight was attached to its deliberations, the freedom of speech and comment preserved the government from sinking into absolute despotism. With supreme power, Octávius, or Augus'tus, as he was about this time named by the senate, assumed an entirely new character; the cruelty with which he may justly be reproached in the early part of his career disappeared; he became a mild and merciful ruler, truly anxious to insure the happiness of the people intrusted to his charge. Under such a benignant administration, the Romans ceased to regret their ancient freedom, if, indeed, such a term can be applied to the oppressive government established by the aristocracy during the preceding century; and before the close of the first emperor's reign, the last traces of the republican spirit had disappeared. It is said that Augus'tus at first wished to resign his power, after the example of Sylla; but was dissuaded by his friends Agrip'pa and Mecæ'nas, who represented to him, with great truth, that the Roman state could no longer be governed by its old constitution, and that he would retire only to make room for another master. He went through the form, however, of an abdication in the senate; but, on the urgent request of that body, he resumed his sway; instead, however, of taking the supreme authority for life, he would only accept it for a term of ten years. This example was followed by the succeeding emperors, and gave rise to the sacra decennália, festivals celebrated at each renewal of the imperial authority.

Amid all the adulations of the senate and people, Augus'tus felt that it was to the army he was indebted for empire, and therefore exerted himself diligently to attach the soldiers to his interest. He dispersed his veterans over Italy in thirty-two colonies, dispossessing, in many places, the ancient inhabitants, to make room for these settlers. He maintained seventeen legions in Europe; eight on the Rhine, four on the Danube, three in Spain, and two in Dalmátia. Eight more were kept in Asia and Africa: so that the standing army of the empire exceeded one hundred and seventy thousand men. Twelve cohorts,

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