key of Egypt on the west side; and Antony, who speeded with his fleet and army to wrest it out of his hands, was forced to retire with great loss, especially of his ships. Pelúsium, the eastern security of the kingdom, was surrendered to Octávius at the first summons: it was reported that Seleúcus the governor betrayed the place by Cleopátra's orders; but she, to clear herself from such an imputation, delivered up his wife and children into Antony's hands. Cæsar advanced to besiege Alexandria: Antony made an effort to impede his march, but he was abandoned by his soldiers; and finding he could not die with glory in the field, he returned to Alexandria, overcome with rage and fury, running and crying out, "that Cleopátra had betrayed him, when he had ruined all his fortunes for her sake alone." The queen, hearing his violent transports, retired in terror to a monument she had erected, secured the doors, and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news, Antony attempted to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound: hearing, however, in the midst of his agonies, that Cleopátra still lived he caused himself to be transported to her monument, and expired in her presence.

Cleopátra seems to have formed some hope of obtaining the same influence over Octávius Cæsar that she had exercised over Antony; but finding the conqueror insensible to her charms, and having received secret information that he reserved her to adorn his triumph, she bribed a countryman to convey an asp to her in a basket of figs, and applied the venomous creature to her arm, and thus died. Egypt was then reduced into the form of a Roman province, and its immense riches transported to Rome, which enabled Octávius to pay all he owed to his soldiers. On his return to Rome, the senate saluted him by the honorable name of Augus'tus, and by a unanimous vote conceded to him the entire authority of the state.

The era of the Roman empire is usually dated from Jan. 1st, B. C. 28. The title of Augus'tus was at first only personal, and did not convey any idea of sovereignty: several of the imperial family took it who never were emperors, such as German'icus. The female line, who had not the least shadow of sovereignty with the Romans, had it as Antónia Major; and thus Liv'ia first took the name of Augusta when she was adopted, by her husband's will, into the Julian family. After the time of Dioclésian it was changed into Sem'per Augus'tus; and this title was, in modern times, assumed by the emperors of Germany and Austria. It may appear surprising that the Romans made no vigorous effort to recover their republican constitution; but, in truth, Roman liberty was destroyed when the Grac'chi were murdered: all the subsequent civil dissensions were contests for power between different sections of the oligarchy; and the people, weary of the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly sought shelter from the tyranny of the nobles in the despotic sway of a single master.

CHAPTER XVI.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF

THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.-European Countries.-Spain.

In general the boundaries of the Roman empire may be described as the great western ocean, the rivers Rhine and Danube in Europe, the chain of Mount Caucasus, the river Euphrátes and the Syrian deserts in Asia, and the sandy deserts of Africa. It thus included the fairest portions of the known world surrounding the Mediterranean sea.

Its most western province was the Spanish peninsula, whose boundaries, being fixed by nature, continue unvaried. This great country, usually called Iberia by the Greeks, either from a colony of Iberians, or from the river Iberus (Ebro), was known to the Romans by the names Hispania or Hesperia. It was usually divided into three great portions, Lusitania, Bætica or Hispania Ulterior, and Tarraconensis or Hispania Citerior.

The chief islands were the major and minor Baleáres (Majorca and Minorca), whose inhabitants were celebrated for their skill as slingers and archers.

SECTION II.-Transalpine Gaul.

ANCIENT Gaul was bounded on the north and south by the sea, on the west by the Pyrenees, and on the east by the rivers Rhine and Var. It was divided into three great sections, Bel'gia, Aquitánia, and Gal'lia Própria; in which the language, manners, and customs, differed considerably.

The religion of the ancient Gauls, like that of the ancient Britons, was druidical; they worshipped a supreme deity called Hésus, or Æsar, to whom they believed the oak to be sacred, especially if the parasitical plant called mistletoe were found growing upon it. Their rites were very sanguinary: human victims were sacrificed in their groves and circles of stone; and it is said that their nobles occasionally volunteered to offer themselves upon the national altars. Temples were not erected in Gaul, until after its conquest by the Romans; but long before that period the worship of a crowd of inferior deities had been introduced.

The several Gallic tribes were usually independent of each other; but on great occasions a general council of the nation was summoned,

especially when preparations were made for any of the great migrations which proved so calamitous to Greece and Italy. Their superior valor rendered these tribes very formidable to all the southern nations; it was commonly said, that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls for actual existence. But from the time of the subjugation of their country by Julius Cæsar, their valor seemed to have disappeared together with their liberty; they never revolted, except when the extortions of their rulers became insupportable; and their efforts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. In no province did Roman civilization produce greater effects than in Gaul; many public works of stupendous size and immense utility were constructed; roads were constructed and paved with stone; durable bridges were built, and aqueducts formed to supply the cities with water. Remains of these mighty works are still to be found, and they can not be viewed without wonder and admiration.

SECTION III.-Britain.

THOUGH Britain was not reduced to the form of a Roman province until long after the time of Julius Cæsar, yet, as that general brought it nominally under subjection, it will be better to describe its ancient state here than to interrupt the history of the empire in a subsequent chapter. The name of Britain was originally given to the cluster of islands in the Atlantic now called British, the largest of which bore the name of Albion. The southern part of Albion, or England, was originally colonized from Gaul; the tribes that inhabited the east and north are said to have been of German descent; and there is a constant tradition, that the Scots in the northwest came originally from Ireland.

That part of Britain now included in the kingdom of England and principality of Wales, was anciently divided among seventeen tribes, to whom probably some of inferior note were subject.

The principality of Wales, formerly comprehending the whole country beyond the Severn, was inhabited, in the Roman times, by the Silúres, the Dem'etæ, and the Ordovíces. The last-named tribe possessed North Wales, and long bade defiance to the Roman power in their mountain fastnesses. The island of Móna (Anglesey), celebrated as the ancient seat of the Druids, belonged to the Ordovíces.

The inhabitants of the country beyond the Firths of Solway and the Forth were named Me'ta and Čaledónii, but, in a later age, the Picts and Scots. Juvérna, or Hiber'nia (Ireland), was known only by name to the Romans.

Three walls, strengthened by castles, were successively raised to check the incursions of the Picts and Scots by the emperors Adrian, Antoninus, and Severus. The last was the most important, according to Camden, who seems to have traced it with great care. It began at Blatobul'gium (Bulness), on the Irish sea, kept along the side of Solway Firth, by Burgh-upon-sands, to Lugoval'lum (Carlisle), where it passed the Itúna (Eden). Thence it was carried on over the little rivers Cambeck, Living, and Poltrose, into the Northumbrian hills, along which it passed to the German ocean. This wall was about eight feet thick, and was protected by a ditch twelve yards broad.

When Britain was first visited by the Romans, the inhabitants had made considerable advances in civilization. Their country was well peopled and stocked with cattle; their houses were as good as those of the Gauls, and they used iron and copper plates for money. They made little use of clothes, instead of which they painted and tattooed their skins. In war they made use of chariots, with sharp blades fixed to the axle-trees, which they drove at full speed against the hostile ranks. Their chief traffic was with the Gauls and the Phoenicians, who came to the Cassiter'ides (Scilly islands), for tin. Little is known respecting their religion, except that they were held in mental thraldom by a caste of priests named Druids, and that they were guilty of offering human sacrifices to their gods. Each tribe had its own king; but in cases of emergency, a common chief was elected, who possessed, however, little more than a nominal authority. The most singular monument of the Druids remaining is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, a circular edifice of enormous stones, which probably was the national temple. Britain was finally abandoned by the Romans in the early part of the fifth century.

SECTION IV.-The Northern Provinces of the Empire.

ITALY, Greece, Sicily, Macedon, &c., having been already described in former chapters, we shall conclude the account of the Roman empire in Europe by a notice of the countries south of the Danube, which were formed into provinces during the reign of Augus'tus Cæsar.

Vindelic'ia was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the east by the 'nus (Inn), on the west by Helvétia (Switzerland), and on the south by Rhæ'tia: it derived its name from the river Vindo (the Wert). Its chief tribes were the Vindelic'ii and Brigan'tii. Two others are mentioned by Horace in his ode celebrating the conquest of this country by Tiberius and Drusus, addressed to Augus'tus :

"Of late the Vindelicians knew

Thy skill in arms, and felt thy sword,
When Drusus the Genanni slew,

And Brenni swift, a lawless horde.
The towers which covered all around

The rugged Alps' enormous height,
By him were levelled with the ground,

And more than once confessed his might."

Their principal towns were Augus'ta Vindelicorum (Augsburgh) and Brigantia (Bregenz), neither of which were remarkable in ancient history. The principal rivers were the Védo and the Ly'cus (Lech).

Rhæ'tia nearly coincided with the country now called the territory of the Grisons; it had Vindelic'ia on the north, the 'nus (Inn) on the east, the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbánus (Lago Maggiore) to Lácus Brigantínus (Lake of Constance) on the south, and Helvétia on the west. The principal tribe were the Rhæ'ti, whom some have identified with the Raséna or ancient Etrurians. They were a brave, but cruel people; and when they invaded Italy in the reign of Augus'tus Cæsar, their ravages exceeded those that had been in earlier times perpetrated by the Gauls.

The chief towns were Cúria (Chur), which became the capital of the

province in the reign of the emperor Adrian, Veldidéna (Wilden), and Tridentum (Trent).

Nor'icum, formerly a kingdom, but afterward a Roman province, extended between the Danube and the Alpes Noriæ in the neighborhood of Trent from the Æ'nus (Inn) to Mons Cétius (Kahlenberg), and consequently included a great portion of modern Austria, the archbishopric of Saltzburgh, and all Styria and Carinthia. Its southern boundaries were the Julian Alps and the Sávus (Save). Its chief cities were, in Noricum Rípense, or the part bordering on the Danube, Jovavum or Jovávia (Saltzburgh), Boidúrum (Innstadt), so named from the Boíi, the most important of the Noric tribes; Lentia (Lenz) and Lauríacum (Lorch). In the interior, or Norícum Mediterráneum, we find Pons 'ni (Innspruck), Vis'celli (Weltz), Gráviacii (Gurch), Agun'tum (Innichen), Teur'nia (Villach), and Sol'va, once the capital of the country, but long since buried in its ruins.

Pannónia was divided into Superior and Inferior. The former had the Danube on the east and north, the Ar'rabo (Raab) on the west, and the chain of Mons Cétius (Kahlenberg) on the south. It consequently comprehended Carniola, Croatia, Windesch, Mark, and part of Austria. Pannónia Inférior had the Arʼrabo on the north, the Danube on the east, and the Sávus (Save) on the south. The chief cities were Seges'ta or Sescia (Siseck) on the Save; Amóna (Unterlaubach), a Roman colony; Naupor'tum (Oberlaubach), upon the river Naupor'tus (Laubach); Vindoniána or Vindebóna (Vienna), obscure in ancient times, but now the capital of the Austrian empire, Scaraban'tia (Scarbing); Mur'sa (Esseg); Sir'mium (Sirmich), the ancient metropolis of Pannónia on the Save; and Taurúnum (Belgrade), an important frontier fortress both in ancient and modern times.

Moe'sia was the name given to the country between the conflux of the Save and Danube and the Euxine sea. It was divided into two unequal portions, Supérior and Inférior. Moe'sia Supérior was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the south by the Scordian mountains, on the west by Pannónia, and on the east by the river Cébrus (Ischia). Its chief cities were Singidúnum (Semlin) and Nais'sus (Nissa). This province comprehended the countries now called Bosnia and Servia.

sea.

Moe'sia Inférior, nearly coinciding with the modern Bulgaria, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by the Cébrus, on the south by Mount Hæmus (the Balkan), and on the east by the Euxine Its chief cities were Odes'sus (Varna) and Tómi (Temeswar). The part of lower Ma'sia bordering on the Euxine was frequently named Pon'tus; and hence, Tómi, the place of the poet Ovid's exile, is called a city of Pon'tus, though it did not belong to the kingdom of that Tómi is said to have derived its name from Medea's having cut her brother Absyr'tus to pieces in that place,* in order that her father's pursuit of her might be delayed, while he gathered the scattered limbs of his child. To this Ovid alludes in a well-known distich:

name.

"Tómi its name from horrid murder bore,
For there a brother's limbs a sister tore."

From réμvw, to cut.