on the life which freely moves therein: just as from remote times man yearned for the wings of the dove. But had anyone ever before the courage and skill to go down into the sea in a ship? True, the diving-bell appears to have been a yet earlier accomplishment. But we cannot regard the bell as anticipating the boat. The difficulties to be overcome in the construction of the bell are quite different and relatively trifling. We may not, indeed, assume that in all cases of invention the fact of accomplishment confers priority. But in the case which we are considering, the merit of successful trial so far exceeds the mere conception that our attitude undoubtedly satisfies the claims of equity. We must accordingly adjudge Cornelius Drebbel, the Dutchman, to be the inventor of the submarine.

Of the genius of Drebbel there can be no doubt. There is the repeated testimony of his wise and just contemporary, Robert Boyle. He writes of him: "It is certain that Drebbel, that great, singular, learned mechanician, did by help of this instrument (the thermometer) make a dial continually to move of itself regularly showing both the time of the day and the motions of the heavens." Boyle's endeavors to learn the chemical secrets of Drebbel is also testimony to his opinion of him. It was customary in those days to preserve secret new discoveries-more especially those of chemical nature. We see something of this even in the case of Newton's discoveries. It is said by Rye that Drebbel published little of value. He wrote on the nature of the elements a book which was reprinted in Dutch, in Latin, and in German. The book is very scarce. There is a portrait of Drebbel in some of the editions, revealing a head and face of rare power. Drebbel appears to have preserved his chief discoveries secret

-transmitting them, probably, as heirlooms.

We may well ask what were the chemical discoveries which enabled Drebbel to accomplish the feat of submarine navigation. It is quite certain that no closed vessel of reasonable dimensions could have contained sufficient air for the respiration of twelve hard-working men during a journey from Westminster to Greenwich, at the fastest pace we may ascribe to the vessel. Almost nothing as to the chemistry of the air was known at the time. It was a hundred and fifty years before the researches of Priestley and Lavoisier. And although Van Helmont (1577-1644) had got so far as to recognize the existence of different kinds of gas, he regarded air as an element, Hooke, in 1665, attempted a theory of combustion which approximated, although vaguely, to the facts. John Mayow, in 1681, published the conclusion that respiration and combustion are analogous phenomena. But these advances were not available to Drebbel. We can only suppose that, either by accident or by research, Drebbel had discovered the property of certain substancese.g., a solution of quicklime in water -of removing from respired air its poisonous properties. It is to be regretted that Boyle did not penetrate Drebbel's secret; but he leaves no doubt that Drebbel had divined the complex nature of the atmosphere, and had attained to an idea of what his liquor accomplished. That being so, we must accord Drebbel a high place among the pioneers of chemical science. The absorption of the carbon dioxide would have enabled the voyage to be much prolonged. Compressed air may have been carried. Pipes going to the surface, assisted by circulating fans or pumps, would of course, also have enabled the voyage to be accomplished. But if

this is the explanation, we must suppose Boyle to have been quite deceived, and the information given to him untruthful. As we shall presently see, Wilkins (that is to say, Mersenni) also discusses the difficulty of respiration in the submarine. He wrote at a later date, and there is reference to the supposed discovery, by a French diver, of a liquor potent to rejuvenate the air rendered poisonous by usage. It is plain that Drebbel's success in overcoming this difficulty was considered by his contemporaries as not the least remarkable part of his accomplishment.

As regards other details, the recapitulation of Mersenni's views contained in Bishop Wilkins' extraordinary book may help us. It is not improbable that some of the suggestions put forward had actually been carried out by Drebbel. Thus the method of propulsion was probably that described in the "Mathematical Magic." But in completing our interrupted extract from the Bishop's work we must not father on the great inventor of the submarine the absurdities of the philosopher.

The Bishop proceeds:"Concerning which there are two things chiefly considerable

"The difficulties are generally reducible to these three heads.

"1. The letting out, or receiving in anything, as there shall be occasion, without the admission of water." This first difficulty is to be overcome thus: "Let there be certain leathern bags made of several bignesses . . . for the figure of them being long and open at both ends. Answerable to these let there be divers windows, or open places in the frame of the ship, round the sides of which one end of these bags may be fixed, the other end

coming within the ship being to open and shut as a purse. Now if we suppose this bag thus fastened to be tied close about towards the window, then anything that is to be sent out may be safely put into that end within the ship, which being again close shut, and the other end loosened, the thing may be safely sent out without the admission of water.

"So again, when anything is to be taken in, it must be first received into that part of the bag towards the window, which being (after the thing is within it) close tied about, the other end may then be safely opened. It is easy to conceive, how by this means any thing or person may be sent out, or received in, as there shall be occasion; how the water, which will perhaps by degrees leak into several parts, may be emptied out again, with divers the like advantages. Though if there should be any leak at the bottom of the vessel, yet very little water would get in, because no air could get out.

"2. The second difficulty in such an Ark will be the motion or fixing of it according to occasion; The direction of it to several places, as the voyage shall be designed, without which it would be very useless, if it were to remain only in one place, or were to remove only blindfold, without a certain direction; And the contrivance of this may seem very difficult, because these submarine Navigators will want the usual advantages of winds and tides for motion, and the sight of the heavens for direction.

"But these difficulties may be thus remedied; As for the progressive motion of it, this may be effected by the help of several Oars, which in the outward ends of them shall be like fins of a fish to contract and dilate. The passage where they are admitted into the ship being tied about with such leather bags (as were mentioned before) to keep out the water. It

will not be convenient perhaps that the motion in these voyages should be very swift, because of those observations and discoveries to be made at the bottom of the sea, which in a little space may abundantly recompense the slowness of its progress.

"If this Ark be so ballast as to be of equal weight with the like magnitude of water, it will then be easily moveable in any part of it.

"As for the ascent of it, this may be easily contrived, if there be some great weight at the bottom of the ship (being part of its ballast) which by some cord within may be loosened from it; As this weight is let lower, so will the ship ascend from it (if need be) to the very surface of the water; and again, as it is pulled close to the ship, so will it descend.

"For the direction of this Ark the Mariners' needle may be useful in respect of the latitude of places; and the course of this ship being more regular than others, by reason it is not subject to Tempests or unequal winds, may more certainly guide them in judging of the longitude of places.

"3. But the greatest difficulty of all will be this, how the air may be supplied for respiration. How constant fires may be kept in it for light and for the dressing of foods. . . . Eight cubic feet of air will not serve a Diver for respiration above one quarter of an hour: the breath which is often sucked in and out, being so corrupted by the mixture of vapors, that nature rejects it as unserviceable. Now in an hour a man will need at least 360 respirations, betwixt everyone of which there shall be ten second minutes, and consequently a great change and supply of air will be necessary for many persons and any long space." One way out of the difficulty is to make the vessel itself "of large capacity, that as the air in it is corrupted in one part, so it may be purified and renewed in

the other; or if the mere refrigeration of the air would fit it for breathing, this might be somewhat helped by bellows, which would cool it by motion." And we are further treated to the suggestion that "it is not altogether improbable" that the mere circulation of air around a lamp or fire maintained in the boat might serve to purify the air as in the "first and second Regions" (of the atmosphere). Finally, the Bishop refers to Mersennus for a reported discovery by "one Barricus, a Diver," whereby a man "might easily continue under water for six hours together." From the discussion of this difficulty by Mersenni and Wilkins, it is evident that they knew nothing of Drebbel's methods of encountering it. We gather, too, from their remarks how intense was the prevailing ignorance on the subject of respiration, and how far in advance of his times was the inventor of the submarine.

But "the many advantages and conveniences of such a contrivance," as set forth by the Bishop and Mersenni, are the most extraordinary part of the whole matter. They are carefully enumerated as follows:

"1. "Tis private; a man may thus go to any coast of the world invisibly, without being discovered or prevented in his journey.

"2. 'Tis safe; from the uncertainty of Tides and the violence of Tempests, which do never move the sea above five or six paces deep. From Pirates and Robbers which do so infest other voyages; from ice and great frosts, which do so much endanger the passages towards the Poles.

"3. It may be of very great advantage against a Navy of enemies, who by this means may be undermined in the water and blown up.

"4. It may be of special use for the relief of any place that is besieged by water, to convey unto them invisible

supplies, and so likewise for the surprisal of any place that is accessible by water.

"5. It may be of unspeakable benefit for submarine experiments and discoveries, as, The several proportions of swiftness betwixt the ascent of a bladder, cork, or any other light substance, in comparison to the descent of stones or lead. The deep caverns and subterraneous passages where the sea water in the course of its circulation doth vent itself into other places, and the like. The nature and kinds of fishes, the several arts of catching them, by alluring them with lights, by placing divers nets about the sides of this Vessel, shooting the greater sort of them with guns, which may be put out of the ships by the help of such bags as were mentioned before, with divers the like artifices and treacheries, which may be more successively (sic) practised by such who live so familiarly together. These fish may serve not only for food, but for fuel likewise, in respect of that oil which may be extracted from them; the way of dressing meat by lamps, being in many respects the most convenient for such a voyage.

"The many fresh springs that may probably be met with in the bottom of the sea, will serve for the supply of drink and other occasions.

"But above all, the discovery of submarine treasures is more especially considerable, not only in regard of what hath been drowned by wrecks, but the several precious things which grow there, as Pearl, Coral Mines, with innumerable other things of great value, which may be much more easily found out, and fetched up by the help of this, than by any other usual way of the Urinators (divers).

"To which purpose the great Vessel may have some lesser cabins tied about it, at various distances, wherein several persons, as Scouts, may be lodged for

the taking of observations, according as the Admiral shall direct them. Some of them being frequently sent up to the surface of the water, as there shall be occasion.

The

"All kinds of arts and manufactures may be exercised in this Vessel. observations made by it may be both written, and (if need were) printed here likewise. Several colonies may thus inhabit, having their Children born and bred up without the knowledge of land, who could not choose but be amazed with strange conceits upon the discovery of this upper world."

Some part of this might be regarded as the lively wit of an amusing essayist. But there is nothing in the solemn Mersenni or learned Bishop Wilkins to suggest mere joking. The standpoint of seventeenth century science must be borne in mind. Authority and superstition still held dominion over such thinkers as Mersenni and Wilkins. They are so accustomed to accept mere hearsay that their world becomes filled with ideas the most grotesque, which pass for facts. The Bishop, indeed, introduces many of his statements without even the sanction of any indentifiable witness. Something is "storied" and forthwith becomes worthy to enter into the category of the possible or the probable. He is, for instance, endeavoring to establish the thesis that flying might become a possible human accomplishment if only it were sufficiently practised. This is how he backs up his theory: "And," he says, "it is storied of a certain young man, a Sicilian by birth, and a diver by profession, who had so continually used himself to the water, that he could not enjoy his health out of it. If at any time he stayed with his friends on the land, he should be so tormented with a pain in his stomach, that he was forced for his health to return back again to the

Sea, wherein he kept his usual residence; and when he saw any ship, his custom was to swim to them for relief, which kind of life he continued till he was an old man and died." This yarn is good enough to prop his argument! And there was no one to laugh at them. The lesser minds Blackwood's Magazine.

were in still worse plight. To them the distinction between fable and fact was still more indefinite. Wilkins and Mersenni were learned men and stood far uplifted above their fellows; but still they had not risen clear of the mists and seen the light which today is shed even upon the humble in life. J. Joly.

Tom Corrigan felt strange and somewhat scared as he stood at his grandmother's door looking down the steep little lane "the boreen" she called it a view of which her cabin commanded. He might well feel so, as he had lived for nearly eight years in a Dublin slum and for only one day and a half in Glencreevin, this valley of green small fields, with its sweeping circle of many-colored hills. They had just emerged into the sunshine of a clear-skied autumn morning, and the furling up of the moth-white mists was a novelty for Tom, accustomed to see day begin with a taking down of shutters from shop windows. Hitherto his experience of hills had been slight, and, as far as it went, unpleasant. Once, very early in his street life, he had from a canal-bridge descried, undulating against the horizon, certain dim, grayish-blue shapes, that somehow impressed him rather awfully. "Come along with yourself out of that," he was bidden by his bigger companions, "what at all are you stargazing at over there?"

Pointing, "What's them?" he had inquired.

"Sure, what else would they be except the Dublin mountains in a fog?" he was informed.

"I was thinking," he said indiscreetly, "that they might be the waves of the sea." And the absurd speculation was long remembered against him.

Later on he had acquired a less unflattering notoriety in the character of newspaper-boy, for he possessed one of the most powerful voices in the profession, so that his shouts of "Evening Herald" reached across the whole spacious width of Sackville Street to mingle with those of his rival crying "Tiligraphs" on the opposite sidewalk. This career, however, had now been cut short by his family's departure to the United States in quest of fairer fortunes, and his widowed grandmother's offer to "take one off their hands, for a while anyway." Hence Tom's arrival in Glencreevin, where the widow said to herself she could find him plenty of jobs if he had the wit. And she had lost no time in finding him one on the Long Farm.

The Long Farm lies on the wrong side of all fences and boundaries. In width it varies from a meagre handsbreadth or SO to quite an ample expanse of sward, and lengthwise it has neither known beginning nor end, thus meriting its name. It is in fact just the grazing along the margins of country roads and lanes. This use of it is indeed forbidden by law, but the small farming people find it so temptingly convenient that even if it were made strictly legal they would not discontinue the practice. Often the police have to be more than a little blind to the presence of straying animals. When a constable is extreme