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which has made a "Declaration of Interdependence: Education for a Global Community" part of their Bicentennial program. In order to "dramatize the urgency of teaching for peace and encourage the inclusion of peace studies in our public schools" the NEA has sponsored a Peace Studies Exposition. A list of the materials included may be found in the Appendix.

VIII. CONCLUSION

The progress in international education during the last several decades seems to be toward greater realism, as evidenced in the setting of more concrete goals, by a clearer perception of the reality of global interdependence and its relation to the national interest, by an increased appreciation of the interrelationship of ongoing educational efforts with other parts of the social and educational system, by the recognition of the importance of the structure as well as the content of curriculum, by support for teacher preparation as well as for the production of appropriate materials, and, finally, by a sharper focus on education as a means to enhance the average citizen's motivation to participate rather than to be a passive observer of world affairs.

The UNESCO Recommendation is a unique reflection of both the perspective on international and global education that American social scientists and educators have espoused and the long-standing educational principles that UNESCO has promoted. In the realization of these principles, human rights education becomes an integral part of international education, life-long education takes on a higher priority than schooling restricted to the years from 6 to 16, the value of interdisciplinary international education is recognized, and the importance of knowledge about the efforts of various international organizations in helping to solve world problems is stressed. In short, the UNESCO Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Cooperation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms not only builds upon progress made during the last twenty-five years in the United States and other UNESCO Member States but also represents a consensus of the Member States concerning the importance of intensified cooperative effort.

Chapter Two: FOOTNOTES

1. D.G. Scanlon, International Education: A Documentary History, p. 7 (Columbia U. Press, 1960).

2. Cited in Scanlon, supra.

3.

A. Carnegie, "Letter to the Trustees," reprinted in Basic Documents of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, p. 5 (Carnegie Endowment, 1974).

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5. See T.J. Jones, Report of the Committee on the Social Studies in Secondary Education, Bulletin No. 28 (Bureau of Education, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1916).

6. H.O. Rugg, "Do the Social Studies Prepare Pupils Adequately for Life Activities?" in The Social Studies in the Elementary and Secondary Schools, Twenty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co. 1923).

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9.

10.

11.

12. 13.

D. Prescott, Education and International Relations, p. 114 (Harvard U. Press, 1930).
For the entire text, see Prescott, supra.

Id. at p. 3.

Id. at p. 23.

For a history of the early years of UNESCO, see W. Lavas & C.A. Thompson, UNESCO: Purpose, Progress, Prospects (Indiana U. Press, 1957).

14.

For a summary of program activities, see International Understanding at School (Paris: UNESCO, 1971).

15.

16.

17.

Id. at p. 15.

Id. at p. 23.

H.W. Malinowski & V. Zorn, The United Nations International School: Its History and Development, p. 60 (U.N. International School, 1973).

pp. 143-144.

18. G. Sullivan, cited in Malinowski & Zorn, id., 19. For description of the Glens Falls, New York, program see J.V. Torney & D. Morris, Global Dimensions of U.S. Education: The Elementary School (New York: Center for War/Peace Studies, 1972).

20. L.B. Johnson, "International Education and Health," Message from the President, February 2, 1966, House Document No. 375, 89th Congress, 2nd Session (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966).

21. Combined summary from R. Leestma, "DE's Institute of International Studies," American Education, Vol. 5, No. 5, May, 1969, p. 8; and from R. Leestma, "Foreword," Inventory of Federal Programs Involving Educational Activities Concerned with Improving International Understanding and Cooperation, U.S. Office of Education, June, 1969, pp. xiii-xiv. 22. J.M. Becker, "An Examination of Objectives, Needs, and Priorities in International Education in United States' Elementary and Secondary Schools," Report to the United States Office of Education on Project 6-2908, p. 11 (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, 1969)

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26.

27.

E. Faure, Learning to Be, pp. 151, 155 (Paris: UNESCO, 1972).
UNESCO Report, ED/MD/27 (1973), p. 7.

27a. The text of this Recommendation is reproduced in International Conference on Public, Education, Recommendations: 1934-1968 (International Bureau of Education, 1970), PP. 342-54. 27b. See, for example, R. Leestma, "OE's Institute of International Studies," American Education, Vol. 5, No. 5, May, 1969, pp. 6, 8. See also, R. Leestma, "Ethnocentrism and Intercultural Education: New insights at home through experience abroad," International Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring 1973, pp. 11-16; and R. Leestma, "Reflections on the Internationalization of Higher Education,” pp. 125-145 in The International Role of the University in the 1970's, Conference Proceedings, May 17-19, 1973, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.

28.

J. Goodlad et al., Toward a Mankind School (McGraw Hill, 1974).

29. For example, see publications in the series of the Council for Cultural Co-operation of the Council of Europe such as Y. Roger, Toward a European Civic Education During the First Phase of Secondary Education (Strasbourg, 1969) and volumes on history and geography from the series on European Curriculum Studies.

30. K. Mushakoji, “Peace Research and Peace Education in a Global Perspective," in C. Wulf, Handbook on Peace Education, pp. 3-4 (International Peace Research Association, 1974).

31.

32.

J. Galtung, "On Peace Education," in Wulf, id. at p. 155.

H. Nicklas & A. Ostermann, "Reflections on a Curriculum of Peace Education," in Wulf,

id. at p. 174.

33.

34.

35.

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Swedish Committee for Internationalizing University Education, Internationalizing Education, p. 14 (Stockholm, Sweden: Office of the Chancellor of the Swedish Universities, 1974). 36. "Sweden: Internationalisation of Education," in Newsletter of the Council of Europe,

1975.

37.

R.L. Hayden, "Statewide Approaches to Change in International/Intercultural Education" (American Council on Education, 1975).

38. International Education Project, American Council on Education, Education for Global Interdependence: A Report with Recommendations to the Government Academic Interface Committee (1975).

39.

National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Education, The Reform of Secondary Education (McGraw-Hill, 1973).

CHAPTER THREE

Major United Nations and
UNESCO Human
Rights Instruments

I. INTRODUCTION

The 1974 UNESCO Recommendation was adopted to promote "international education" and "education relating to human rights." In the preceding chapters we analyzed the "international education" aspects of the Recommendation. Here we shall discuss the concept of "human rights" as understood and defined by the Recommendation.

1

Philosophers, theologians, educators and lawyers tend not infrequently to define human rights by reference to different criteria or values. The resulting definitions are determined by the needs and methodology of a given discipline, by individual political and philosophical beliefs, and by perceived or imposed legal, institutional and governmental demands or restraints. Our task is even more predetermined, for the UNESCO Recommendation contains a definition of human rights. This definition was adopted to help educators understand and comply with the mandate of the Recommendation: to promote and develop "education relating to human rights." We shall attempt to explain this definition and provide related information about international protection of human rights to give meaning to the guidelines of the Recommendation. That is the purpose of this and the following two human rights chapters.

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It is important to note at this point that the definition of international human rights cannot be separated from the legal, institutional, and factual contexts within which various international human rights formulations have been articulated. In dealing with the definition of human rights, these contexts must be discussed. In the other areas of the Recommendation international understanding, cooperation, and peace- material which would enable educators to understand these contexts is more readily available. The detailed discussion of the legal, institutional, and factual contexts of international human rights is therefore not carried over to topics that are discussed in this volume. II. THE INTERNATIONAL BILL OF HUMAN RIGHTS

"Human rights and fundamental freedoms," declares paragraph 1(c) of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendation, "are those defined in the United Nations

Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and on Civil and Political Rights. These international instruments proclaim the basic civil and political rights that are also guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. But the International Bill of Rights, which is comprised of the Universal Declaration and the two Covenants, sets forth additional rights dealing with social, economic and cultural matters that are not expressly recognized in comparable U.S. constitutional instruments. Recent federal and state legislation does, however, provide for and accord many of the benefits that these newer rights are designed to ensure.

In the pages that follow we shall examine each of the instruments that is mentioned in the definition of the UNESCO Recommendation. This discussion should enable us to determine which human rights are today entitled to international respect and protection.

A. The United Nations Charter

The United Nations Charter is the first instrument that the UNESCO Recommendation mentions in defining human rights. The Charter is the constitution of the United Nations and, as such, regulates the powers and functions of the organization. It is also a multilateral treaty to which all UN Member States are parties. As a treaty, the UN Charter sets out the rights and obligations of the Member States.

The preamble and seven of the 111 Articles of the UN Charter deal with human rights. These are Articles 1, 13, 55, 56, 62, 68 and 76. Most important of these are Articles 1, 55 and 56. Among the "Purposes of the United Nations," enumerated in Article 1 of the Charter, is the achievement of “international cooperation . . . in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." Article 55 imposes on the UN the obligation to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." The Member States, in turn, "pledge themselves" in Article 56, "to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55." The Charter thus commands the UN and its Member States to promote the observance of human rights. This obligation is legally binding under international law because it is embodied in a treaty the UN Charter - which the Member States have ratified. No UN Member State can consequently validly assert that it is free, as a matter of international law, to violate fundamental human rights.

Of course, we all know that there are governments, just as there are individuals, who do not live up to their legal obligations. The existence of the UN human rights provisions is of great importance, however, because the mere existence of legal obligations tends to deter or at least to reduce illegal behavior of individuals and governments. Moreover, prior to 1945 when the UN Charter entered into force, the human rights of the citizens of a state were

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