Toward a Mankind School, a report by Goodlad, Klein, Novotney, and Tye of an attempt to realize a search for human fulfillment and unity in conjunction with a new conception of human rights and understanding of freedom. 28 The roots of their approach are to be found in humanistic philosophy rather than political theory or UNESCO principles. The elements of the school culture through which they attempt to promote this "mankind perspective" include, for example, the role of routine, the use of extrinsic or intrinsic reward, the dependence or independence of the student with regard to teachers, the openness of the school. This book also reports attempts to implement mankind curriculum with a group of students aged nine through twelve. Here the authors concluded that the atmosphere and philosophy which pervades a school appeared to be as important in encouraging students to develop a mankind perspective as any particular curriculum unit.

With the establishment of the Institute of International Studies in 1968, the U.S. Office of Education took on a much more active national leadership role in international education. The philosophy that intercultural understanding had both domestic and international dimensions and that these were inter-related was articulated in public presentations, professional publications, and Congressional appropriations hearings. International/intercultural education was also advocated as a basic need in general education at all levels, to help students develop a broader concept of citizenship more relevant to an interdependent world. 27 b

USOE efforts to support international/intercultural education were progressively broadened in program activities as well as in conceptual approach. For example, "outreach" programs were developed to tap the specialized knowledge of the NDEA Title VI foreign language and area studies centers at U.S. universities to help meet the needs of elementary, secondary, and teacher education for intercultural insights and curriculum materials in teaching about other lands and other peoples as well as about the cultural backgrounds of various minority groups in American society. (The NDEA Title VI outreach program also would seem to hold practical potential for significant contributions to international human rights education.) Special summer seminar programs abroad were initiated to provide teachers with increased opportunities to study at first hand in Africa, Asia, and Latin America the ethnic origins and heritage of some major American ethnic groups.

In 1974, the total international/intercultural effort of OE's Institute of International Studies was further enriched with the establishment of the Ethnic Heritage Studies program under Title IX of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended. This program is aimed at helping each student develop a better understanding of his or her ethnic heritage as well as an appreciation of the contributions of other ethnic groups to the national heritage.

The effort of this program to meet what John Carpenter (the first director of the branch which administered this program within the Institute of International Studies in the U.S. Office of Education) called "the intercultural imperative" is also reflected in several paragraphs of the UNESCO Recommendation.

VI. EFFORTS INVOLVING OTHER NATIONS

Our discussion would be incomplete without mentioning a number of other concerned groups and international organizations which have contributed programs, materials and perspectives to this area. For example, there is a special concern for peace education which links educators in a variety of European, Asian, and African countries; there has been an effort to internationalize the university in Sweden with an anticipated impact on other levels of education as well; and there have been efforts to implement coordinated programs of international or intercultural education in the U.S. at the state and federal levels.

The work of the Council of Europe in promoting education for international understanding has extended over the last two decades and has concentrated particularly on civic education relating to European unification. Recurring themes in its publications are the importance of an active rather than a passive orientation to one's civic duty and means by which the child can be encouraged to see ever widening levels of cooperation and dynamic integration extending from his own community to Europe to the world. The emphasis upon the importance of a democratic spirit and a regard for human dignity in the conduct of the class and school helps to guide the student toward the desired goal. European Civic Education is not at present one of the intensive projects of the Council of Europe. A number of earlier publications by various agencies, however, provide an interesting perspective on international cooperation. 29 The Documentation Center for Education in Europe and its Information Bulletin reports on many related activities in the European countries.

Since the UNESCO Recommendation deals with education for peace, it is also important to consider peace-education aims as they have been formulated by peace researchers. A variety of points of view are represented in the volume Handbook on Peace Education, sponsored by the International Peace Research Association's Education Committee. Contributors from fifteen countries on five continents report on progress as of the early 1970's. Although some of the proposed strategies and programs are suitable only for universities and some are of limited use because of their highly political approach, other articles are relevant. Mushakoji, a Japanese, comments on the diversity and definitions of peace education:

For those in Europe who have learned through two World Wars how tragic it is for peoples to hate each other, an education for 'international understanding' is peace education. For the Indian disciples of the Mahatma, it is in the great tradition of satyagraha and nonviolence that this education finds its roots. In ... Japan, this field of pedagogy consists of a collective effort to keep alive the lessons of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the United States the long decade of muddling through a war experience in Vietnam lends education for peace a different tone.

30

Galtung of Norway, a leading peace researcher, highlights the importance of the structure of education as well as its content:

Peace education has to be compatible with the idea of peace... it has in itself to exclude not only direct violence, but also structural violence . . . Any educational form suggested should be evaluated in terms of the structure it engenders. Does it permit a feedback? . . . Does it permit general participation? 3

31

Two other contributors to the Handbook, Nicklas and Ostermann from the Federal Republic of Germany, speak of stages in peace research and education, stressing that peace education must prepare for peace action. The first stage they identify is education for international understanding, particularly exemplified through UNESCO's efforts to eliminate stereotypes and prejudice from textbooks:

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This approach is mainly limited because it suggests a scheme of psychological explanation which concentrates on the individual. It assumes that peace will be assured only if all prejudices in the individual are dismantled and all national biases destroyed... The problem of war cannot be reduced to psychological phenomena of the individual. Wars are not the total sum of individual aggression. . . A peace education reduced to the psychological level is bound to fail because it views man only as an isolated individual, without seeing the social system which mediates the individual structures. The second phase of peace research and education according to these authors is characterized by the approach of political science understanding war as a political phenomenon of the international system. In this view cooperation within the existing international system is central to peace, and peace education programs need to develop loyalty to international organizations rather than to existing nations. In the third phase, according to Nicklas and Ostermann, it is recognized that

33

Peacelessness is built into into the social structure of nation states and at the same time institutionally anchored in the present organization of the community of states . . . ... Realistic peace education is part of a strategy for changing contemporary intra-societal as well as international reality. They refer to peace education in this framework as an emancipatory political education which includes a broad range of learning goals, each carefully related to the structure of education. Among the approximately seventy examples which they give of learning goals are the following:

To learn not to accept social conditions as a natural phenomenon, but to evaluate these conditions in terms of the given possibilities for the emancipation of man and in terms of the possibility of democratizing society.

To recognize that violence has two forms: personal and structural violence. To really recognize that peace cannot be sufficiently described as the absence of war. 34

As can be seen, there is considerable diversity of viewpoint among the authors

of this volume on peace education; each reflects different assumptions about the causes of war. One common theme, however, is that school structure is an important part of effective education for peace.

A series of program and policy statements in Sweden represent an attempt at broad institutional change in that country, which has a relatively centralized educational system. In 1972 the Office of the Chancellor of the Swedish Universities appointed a Committee to develop a program to internationalize university education.

An internationalization of university education seeks to foster international cooperation and international solidarity, which (is) also . . . in line with long-term national interest. 35

That committee further noted that education should create

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global openness, awareness and readiness to act as well as understanding and respect for other peoples and cultures... knowledge related to the world as a whole . . . and the ability to communicate internationally. One of their assumptions is that education with an international component will prepare students more effectively for careers after the completion of their formal schooling. Although the Swedish reform is concentrated at the university level, it has ramifications beginning as early as the pre-school. At this level, fundamental attitudes such as tolerance and the ability to cooperate would be fostered through games, films, songs, and stories. At the primary and secondary levels syllabi and textbooks would be revised to have "truly world-wide dimension, not merely national or Western." At the university level a number of programs in specialized areas were suggested; more important, however, would be an internationalization of all university courses beginning with a three-week multidisciplinary course for beginning university students to introduce them to international relations and to problems facing mankind (e.g. ecological problems, the arms race). Expanded language programs and exchange programs were proposed also.

VII. COORDINATION OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMS IN THE U.S. AT STATE AND FEDERAL LEVELS

Similar attempts in the United States to stimulate and coordinate international programs within particular states are being undertaken with increasing frequency. The historical roots of this effort are to be found in the programs of the State of New York. This effort was spearheaded by the creation in the early 1960's of several positions and institutional structures with specific competencies in foreign area studies. In 1963 a state plan for international education was accepted by the N.Y. Board of Regents, and in 1970 a formal position paper and policy statement, entitled International Dimensions of Education, was issued. Seven major themes were detailed in that paper, including conflict resolution and international cooperation, intercultural relations, and comparative urbanization. At the present time the Center for International Programs and Comparative Studies is located in the State Education Department at

Albany, under the direction of Ward Morehouse, who has been the moving force behind this program. The Center's aim has been to strengthen at all levels of the educational system opportunities for the study of other areas of the world. It coordinates the activities of the Foreign Area Materials Center in New York City, the Educational Resources Center in New Delhi, India, and the Office of Comparative Education and Educational Exchange in Albany. The Center is also involved in networks such as the Associated Schools Project, the International Baccalaureate, and the Council for Intercultural Studies and Programs (which provides a link to international programs at colleges and universities throughout the United States). Similar state-wide efforts in North Carolina, Indiana, Texas, and Wisconsin are making considerable progress.

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A series of problems which are likely to be encountered in programs such as these have also been identified. For example, excellent materials are sometimes not diffused beyond the area where they are developed because of funding limitations; there is often a lack of sufficient financial support to complete the adequate training of teachers to use the materials developed; the absence of an effective evaluation implemented throughout the project results in less effective model building.

In some respects the state-wide efforts in the United States are the most appropriate analogy to the Swedish attempt to internationalize education. However, the International Education Project of the American Council on Education, an organization which has as its members institutions of higher learning throughout the country, is exerting an important leadership role through its publications and conferences. The ACE's recent report, Education for Global Interdependence: A Report with Recommendations to the Government/Academic Interface Committee, makes a wide range of recommendations dealing particularly with the redirecting of funds and the establishment of priorities of federal and private funding agencies as well as with universitylevel reforms. 38 The purpose of these proposals is to fill more adequately the need for citizenship education about international issues as well as to encourage expert knowledge of a wide range of languages and foreign areas. The study justifies its statements about the need for additional attention to training for globally oriented citizens on the information that only about 3% of undergraduate students have enrolled in any courses dealing specifically with international events or foreign cultures; that barely 5% of pre-service teachers in the U.S. have any exposure to global perspectives during their training; and that less than 2% of the average television week on commercial and public television concerns international matters. In the view of the American Council on Education, changes in policy to implement its recommendations are urgently needed.

Other national educational organizations which have recently recognized the importance of international education are the National Commission on the Improvement of Secondary Education, which has included reforms related to global education in its recent report, 39 and the National Education Association,