acter and the stories Char- by a picturesque, detailed story. Interest is centred not in the kings of Israel, but in Elijah the Tishbite; not in the insurrections and wars, but in date of the religious and social life of the nation. Towering above the king and Elijah dominating the history is the commanding personality of the great prophet of Gilead. As the spokesman of Jehovah, like Moses in the early prophetic or Samuel in the later Ephraimite narratives, he moulds the history. At the same time there is a freshness, a concreteness, a directness in the language, and a naturalness and reserve in the representation which stamp the stories as comparatively early. The worship at the public shrines like Bethel and Dan, with their golden calves, receives no censure, as it does in the sermons of Amos and Hosea. The toleration and popular identification of the Baal-cult with that of Jehovah are the chief objects of attack. They therefore clearly antedate 750 B.C., when Amos appeared at Bethel with his revolutionary message. On the other hand, the character of Elijah has begun to be clothed with a certain mystery. The tone of the narratives suggests that the traditions which they embody were not committed to writing until a generation or two after the great prophet had passed away. Their approximate date may accordingly be fixed not long after 800 B.C. Their The stories were doubtless treasured in prophetic circles and later kept history in written form. The spirit and point of view, as well as the direct reference to Judah in 193, as a foreign nation, demonstrate that they came from Northern Israel. Occasional expressions, like after these things (1717, 211), the designation of the sacred mountain as Horeb (198), and above all the commanding rôle attributed to the prophet proclaim the kinship of these with the early Ephraimite prophetic narratives in the opening books of the Old Testament (cf. Vol. I, 37–40). Of the two, however, the Elijah stories seem to be the more primitive. They were probably the nucleus about which gathered the similar narratives which ultimately traced the history of the theocratic people back to the days of Abraham. In their light it is for the first time possible fully to understand why this school conceived of the earliest prophets as clothed with almost omnipotent authority and, like Elijah and Isaiah of a later and very different age, shaping from the first the history of the Israelitish race. Their original In the Greek version the narratives of 17-19 are continued immediately extent by 21, and in this order they probably stood in the original text. Extracts from the same source appear in II Kings 1. That they are but extracts from a more complete biography of Elijah is clearly shown by the abruptness with which he is introduced in 17-many facts being assumed which are nowhere stated in the fragments which have been preserved-and by the incompleteness of the biography as it stands. Following his usual method only those sections were quoted which conserved the broad purpose of the prophetic editor of Kings. 8. The Gilgal Cycle of Popular Elijah Stories In II Kings 21-815, 1314-21 is found a collection of narratives which centre about Elisha. They have all the characteristics of stories long transmitted pend ence Elisha the group from mouth to mouth. Details regarding the exact setting and the names Deof the reigning kings have been lost. The supernatural elements are prominent and the ethical motives are often obscured. In these Elisha figures of the as the man of God, the great wonder-worker. That they are later and stories modelled after the early Elijah narratives is demonstrated by the fact that upon the same elements and in some cases almost the identical stories reap- Elijah pear in enlarged proportions. Thus for example, the story of the widow's meal and jar of oil that failed not (I Kgs. 178-16) reappears in the account of the widow's pot of oil which did not fail until she had, at Elisha's command, drawn enough from it to defray all her debts (II Kgs. 41-7). Closely similar to the account of the reviving of the widow's son by Elijah (I Kgs. 1717-24) is the story of his resuscitating the Shunammite's son (II Kgs. 48-37). It would seem that just as the same tale of deception regarding his wife was twice told about Abraham in different settings and once about Isaac (cf. Vol. I, §13), so in popular tradition, not only the mantle, but also the reputation of Elijah fell upon his chief disciple. two of stories The Elisha stories are not as closely knit together as are the Elijah narra- The tives. They are rather a bundle of anecdotes, each complete in itself. Minor distinct inconsistencies also indicate that they were originally taken from at least two cycles distinct groups. Thus for example in 5" Gehazi is a leper and therefore Elisha an outcast, but in 8' he is introduced conversing with the king and is still the trusted servant of the man of God. There is not the slightest reference to the incurable disease with which, according to 527, he was afflicted. In one cycle of stories Elisha is represented as residing at Gilgal. This is evidently not the Gilgal near Jericho but the sanctuary southeast of Shiloh (cf. 21-4). There he lives in close association with the guild of the sons of the prophets which was located at that place (438-44). In this cycle there are frequent references to these sons of the prophets and their wives. Furthermore, the stories without exception all relate to the events of private life, and they resemble most those found in the early Elijah group. Evidently they were treasured on the lips of the people living in the West Jordan valley, not far from Elisha's home at Abel-Meholah, and were probably first collected by some member of the prophetic guild at the neighboring town of Gilgal. In the Gilgal cycle may be included II Kings 2, 41-7. 38-44, 61-7. It is im- Date of possible to fix their date exactly. Several generations have evidently trans- Gilgal mitted them orally. They have the Northern Israelitish stamp, but since cycle the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C. did not mean the deportation of the bulk of the inhabitants of Israel, it is possible that they were not put in literary form until after that event. This later date also best accords with their general character. 9. The Samaria Cycle of Popular Elisha Stories In the other cycle, which included the remaining stories in II Kings 3-815, to which may be added 148-14, Elisha is conceived of as residing at Samaria, the capital (53, 624. 32), and as being in close touch with the king and court (311, 413, 58, 69. 32). Most of the stories reflect his activity not in private but in public life, and especially in the wars with Moab and Aram. The the Contents and character Sa maria cycle Arameans in fact figure in six out of nine stories belonging to this cycle. No references are found to the sons of the prophets, but instead Gehazi is the servant, ever attendant upon the prophet (412. 14. 25-36, 520-27, 615, 8). Like a of the king, Elisha is usually represented as simply giving directions or else sending his servant with his potent staff to work the wonders recorded. The earlier stories here reflected are found not only in the Elijah group but also in the early Ahab history. Thus for example the parallel between I Kings 22 and II Kings 3 extends even to similar scenes and language (cf. II Kgs. 37-11 and I Kgs. 224-7). Close analogies may also be traced with certain of the patriarchal stories, as for example the prediction that the Shunammite woman should have a son before a year had passed (cf. 416 and Gen. 181). Its date Contents and char acter of the Isaiah It is difficult to determine which of these cycles is the older. They doubtless grew up contemporaneously. The Samaria group, however, clearly embodies more historical data and probably was committed to writing before the fall of that city in 722 B.C. The fact that Samaria was a literary centre would facilitate the process. These two cycles of popular Elisha stories were apparently combined-citations being taken alternately from each-before they were incorporated as II Kings. The fact that they are all introduced together and have received practically no editorial revision probably indicates that they were among the latest additions to the book. It is more than possible that they came into the possession of the late prophetic editor as a result of the conquests and reforming expeditions of Josiah, which, according to II Kings 2319. 20, extended to the sanctuaries of Samaria. IO. The Isaiah Stories It was most natural that in later generations among Isaiah's disciples there should also grow up a cycle of stories associated with him and preserving in traditional form the memory of his work. Three stories from such a group are found in II Kings 181-2019 (cf. §§ 122, 124). They are again stories quoted by the editor of the book of Isaiah in 36-39, with the further addition of a psalm which is attributed to Hezekiah (3810-20). The first of these narratives is evidently a duplicate of the extract in II Kings 1817-199 30. 37, which was apparently taken from a Hezekiah history. In popular transmission the details of the incident have been partially forgotten; while in the expansion of the story in 208-11, Isaiah like Elisha is conceived of as a wonder-worker. The references to the Babylonian exile in 2015. 17 indicate that these stories were committed to writing after 586 B.C. Work of the preexilic editors II. The Final Editing of the Books of Samuel and Kings This brief study of the sources of Samuel and Kings has sufficed to show that many very early elements enter into these composite books, and that their growth was gradual, representing a period of fully four centuries. Their real author or authors selected the quotations from the older annals, biographies, and temple records, arranged them in their present order and, in the book of Kings, fitted them into a stereotyped framework (cf. p. 7). The language, the expressions, and the distinctively religious ideas of these editorial sections are those of the late prophetic group of writers who were inspired by the book of Deuteronomy and the great reform of Josiah in 621 B.C. (for a detailed list of their words and expressions, cf. Driver, LOT, pp. 200–203, Hast. DB II, pp. 859-861). The original editor of Kings carried his history down to the reign of Jehoiakim, but apparently writes from the point of view of Palestine, and while the Judean state was still standing (cf., e.g., to this day, II Kgs. 822, 16o, 1724-34). of the The exile, which quickly followed, transformed the thought of Israel's Work religious teachers so completely that a later editor, writing probably in Baby- final lonia not long after 561 B.C., gave to the book of Kings its final form. He editor likewise belonged to the late prophetic school, so that it is not always easy to distinguish his work from that of his predecessor. He certainly added the account of the final destruction of Jerusalem and the liberation of Je hoiachin in 561 B.C. The conception of Jehovah in I Kings 827-30 and of the temple as a place of worship for all peoples is closely akin to that found in Isaiah 40-56. Also 33, 34 seem to imply the point of view of the exile. This is also true of II Kings 217-15. It is probable that in their present form the prophetic addresses in I Kings 814-99 and II Kings 217-15, as well as certain other minor additions, are from the latest editor. Later priests and scribes added occasional notes, but by 540 B.C. the prophetic historical books of Samuel and Kings were practically complete. Contents of the late eccle cal III THE CHRONICLER'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF JUDAH EXCEPTING in the three or four quotations from the temple records, the books of Samuel and Kings are throughout national and prophetic in their interests. Their final editors were clearly prophets, and to the same group siasti- of religious patriots belonged the authors of most of the older sources which history are quoted. It was natural that the other prominent class of Israel's teachers, the priests, whose interests were distinctly ritualistic and ecclesiastical, should also write their own version of the history. Closely corresponding in spirit and purpose to the late priestly narratives in the Pentateuch is the parallel history of Judah found in the books of Chronicles and their direct continuation Ezra-Nehemiah. Identity in literary style and point of view, as well as the repetition of the opening verses of Ezra (11-3) at the close of Chronicles (3622. 23), leaves no doubt that the books are all from the same author or editor, and originally constituted one continuous narrative, beginning with Adam and concluding with the account of the great priestly reformation associated with Ezra (about 400 B.C.). Its date Method of the author The fact that the author of this extensive history speaks of the days of Nehemiah and Ezra as though they belonged to the distant past (Neh. 1226. 47) and the kings of Persia as though he lived under a different rule (Ezra 11. 2. 8. 37) at once suggests that he wrote at least from the point of view of the succeeding Greek period. Nehemiah 1211 22 also mentions Jaddua who was high-priest in 332 B.C., when Alexander conquered Palestine. The awkward Hebrew which he used, and the highly developed ceremonial institutions with which he is familiar, as well as his general point of view, indicate that he wrote not earlier than 300 B.C., probably about the middle of the third century. Again the historical value of the work turns largely upon whether the author depended for his facts merely upon the traditions current in his own day or upon written sources, and also whether he recast the information, which he collected, in his own language, or quoted it practically verbatim from much earlier sources. An examination of his work at once demonstrates that his method, like that of the editors of Samuel and Kings, was primarily compilation. Nearly half of the books of Chronicles consists of exact or slightly variant quotations from the Old Testament books of Samuel and Kings. Variations in style, point of view, and even minor inconsistencies in representation clearly indicate that the greater part of Ezra-Nehemiah, and probably certain of the remaining portions of Chronicles, were taken bodily from older written sources. The real work of the writer of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah was therefore not primarily that of an original author |