Notwithstanding these hindrances, the Church of England enjoyed a slow but steady growth in power up to the Revolutionary War. In the southern colonies it was the predominant church, and people were required by law to contribute to its support, though there was frequently a lack of harmony between clergy and people. In New England and the middle colonies, on the other hand, it was largely an alien institution, opposed by a strong majority of dissenters. Usually it was not strong financially, and its support came largely from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; but in Maryland and Virginia the churches were maintained by the local governments and were prosperous.

The close of the war found the Episcopal churches thoroughly disorganized. Many of the clergy were loyal to the Crown and left the country, going either to England or to Canada, and of those who remained few conducted any public services, partly for lack of congregations and partly because of the impossibility of conducting the services in full, including the petition for the royal family. Even the semblance of an establishment was no longer maintained, and few, if any, desired one. There was no episcopacy, and not even any association of churches. Furthermore, so intense was the sentiment of state loyalty that there was little recognition of any relation between the churches of different states. The first move toward an organization was the appearance, in 1782, of a pamphlet entitled "The Case of the Episcopal Churches in the United States Considered," written by the Rev. William White, of Philadelphia, but published anonymously. In this he urged that, without waiting for a bishop the churches should unite in some form of association and common government. He also outlined a plan which embodied most of the essential characteristics of the diocesan and general conventions as adopted later.

Meanwhile the Maryland Legislature had, in 1779, passed an act committing to certain vestries, as trustees, the property of the parishes, but also prohibiting general assessments, and affirming the right of each taxpayer to designate the denomination to whose support his contribution should be applied. The next year a conference was called, consisting of 3 clergymen and 24 laymen, and a petition was sent to the legislature asking that the vestries be empowered to raise money for parish uses by pew rents and other means. As it was essential to the petition that the organization have a title, the name "Protestant Episcopal Church" was suggested as appropriate the term "Protestant" distinguishing it from the Church of Rome, and the term "Episcopal" distinguishing it from the Presbyterian and Congregational bodies. This name was formally approved by a conference at Annapolis in 1783 and appears to have continued in use until definitely adopted by the General Convention of 1789.

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With the close of the war and the desire for a full organization, the Maryland churches elected Dr. William Smith bishop and the Connecticut churches, Dr. Samuel Seabury. No steps were taken by Dr. Smith toward consecration, but Dr. Seabury went to England and applied to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The latter received him cordially but could not see his way clear to accede to his request under the existing political conditions. Dr. Seabury, therefore, applied to the nonjuring Scottish bishops, who, after some hesitation, performed the office, in November, 1784.

As it became evident that the Episcopal churches of the different states were organizing independently, a movement to constitute an Episcopal Church for the whole United States was inaugurated, largely by the initiative of Dr. William White, at an informal meeting at New Brunswick, N. J., in May, 1784. Three states only-New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-were represented, but correspondence with other states resulted in a convention in New York, in October of the same year, with delegates from 8 states. This was also informal, with no recognized authority, and representing very diverse views, but it adopted, with noteworthy unanimity, a recommendation to the churches, embodying the following fundamental principles:

I. There shall be a general convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.

II. That the Episcopal Church in each state send deputies to the convention, consisting of clergy and laity.

III. That associated congregations in two or more states may send deputies jointly.

IV. That the said church shall maintain the doctrines of the gospel as now held by the Church of England and shall adhere to the liturgy of said church, as far as shall be consistent with the American Revolution and the constitution of the respective states. V. That in every state where there shall be a bishop duly consecrated and settled he shall be considered as a member of the convention ex officio.

VI. That the clergy and laity assembled in convention shall deliberate in one body, but shall vote separately, and the concurrence of both shall be necessary to give validity to any measure. VII. That the first meeting of the convention shall be at Philadelphia the Tuesday before the Feast of St. Michael next, to which it is hoped and earnestly desired that the Episcopal churches in the respective states will send their clerical and lay deputies duly instructed and authorized to proceed on the necessary business herein proposed for their deliberation.

The project of a general convention aroused varying sentiments. In the South it was feared that too much ecclesiastical authority would be assumed by it, while in the North it was feared that too much would be conceded to it. When the convention next met, in September, 1785, at Philadelphia, 16 clergymen and 24 laymen were present, representing only 7 of the 13 states-New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. New England was thus not represented at all, and there were numerous protests from many quarters against

the proposed plan of organization. The convention adopted, however, with some modifications, the principles already mentioned, and then undertook to draw up a constitution and a liturgy, the latter under the general oversight of Dr. William Smith, and the former under that of Dr. William White. The liturgy, as adopted, involved some radical changes significant of the prevailing tone of the times, but most of these changes were afterwards rejected. The constitution formulated was essentially that of the church as it is to-day.

While no serious disposition to question the validity of Bishop Seabury's consecration was manifested, yet the desire was general to be connected with the Church of England rather than with that of Scotland. Accordingly an address to the archbishops and bishops of the former church was prepared, and the state conventions were urged to elect bishops. The reply from England was on the whole favorable, and before the next meeting of the convention, in 1786, New York had elected as its bishop Dr. Samuel Provoost; Pennsylvania, Dr. William White; Maryland, Dr. William Smith; and Virginia, Dr. David Griffith. Of these four, only Dr. White and Dr. Provoost went to England, where they were consecrated in February, 1787, thus completing the number of three bishops essential to the constitution of the house of bishops. Subsequently, Dr. James Madison was elected bishop of Virginia, and was consecrated in England, so that any objection to the Scottish office was obviated.

In 1789 a union of the different forces was effected and Bishop Seabury joined the other bishops. Two houses were constituted in the General Convention, and the constitution and Book of Common Prayer were adopted. Thus the same year that saw the complete organization of the Federal Government witnessed also the full equipment of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The four bishops above mentioned united in 1792 in the ordination of Dr. Thomas John Claggett, Bishop of Maryland, and thus was inaugurated the distinctively American Episcopate.

For 20 years and more the church had to combat various hostile influences. It was widely distrusted as being really an English institution. Its compact organization and its formality of worship repelled many, especially in an age that was peculiarly fond of emotionalism, and of an untrammeled freedom in religious as well as social and civil life. The loss of the Methodist element, which hitherto had been identified with the church, though somewhat loosely, deprived it of some strength. Growth was slow, and conventions and ordinations were few in number, especially in Virginia and further south. At times it seemed as if the labors of the founders were to be fruitless.

In the second decade of the nineteenth century came a change, coincident with the general change in the

tone of spiritual life throughout the country. New bishops were elected and consecrated, who went out into the newly settled sections, especially in the West. In 1821 the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society was organized, and work was begun both on the foreign field and in the remoter regions of the states. Diocesan organizations took the place of state organizations, and little by little the church began to take its place in the development of the nation. An illustration of the progress made is seen in the fact that the 4 or 5 active ministers laboring in Virginia when Bishop Moore came to Richmond in 1814 increased to nearly 100 during the 27 years of his service, and the number of churches to 170.

In the course of time two parties, or rather tendencies, developed, styled, for convenience, evangelical and high church. Lines were not sharply drawn; leaders in each party practiced the principles of the other; yet a distinction existed which grew clearer as the years went by. The high-church party emphasized the church as a comprehensive, ecclesiastical, authoritative unity; the evangelical party, while not denying the authority of the church, emphasized the spiritual freedom of the individual. The former emphasized the catholic character of the church, as the heir of all the Christian ages, and a portion of the one holy Apostolic Church of Christ, and sought to bring all dissenting Christian bodies within the one fold. The latter would gladly welcome them, but would still cooperate with them as nonconforming Christian bodies, so far as possible, being concerned with the maintaining and developing of personal righteousness, and with endeavors for the salvation of souls rather than with the development of a church fold, however ideal in its doctrine, ritual, and government.

About 1845 Dr. W. A. Muhlenberg, one of the most remarkable men in the history of the church, came into prominence. He founded the system of church schools, organized the first free church of any importance in New York City, introduced the male choir, sisterhoods, and the fresh air movement; while his church infirmary suggested to his mind St. Luke's Hospital, the first church hospital of any Christian communion in the country. He hoped to extend the movement in his own parish to the entire church, transforming it from what he considered a liturgical denomination into a real catholic church. As a result a memorial was drawn up, chiefly by himself, but signed also by a number of prominent clergymen, and addressed to the college of bishops. It raised the query whether the church with "her fixed and invariable modes of worship and her traditional customs and usages" was competent for the great and catholic work before it. In partial answer to this query the memorial suggested "that a wider door might be opened for admission to the gospel ministry

the spiritual interests and welfare of the soldiers and sailors, abroad and at home, raising for this purpose the sum of $500,000. Three of the bishops, a large number of the clergy, and a still larger number of lay workers went to France and Flanders, and at home great numbers have served in the cantonments and mobilization camps.

Another important movement during the past decade has been the appointment of a joint commission for the purpose of considering questions touching faith and order, in which all Christian communions throughout the world should be asked to unite. This commission invited representatives of a considerable number of churches, including the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches to join them, and an advisory committee was formed. which had several meetings and was planning for a world conference when the war began. The immediate result was that these plans have been held in abeyance, but it is the purpose of the commission and the advisory committee to press them as soon as practicable. The commission has issued a number of publications setting forth its scope and purpose.

DOCTRINE.

The doctrinal symbols of the Protestant Episcopal Church are the Apostles' and Nicene creeds. The Athanasian Creed, one of the symbols of the Anglican Church, was unanimously rejected by the convention of 1789, chiefly because of its damnatory clauses. The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, with the exception of the twenty-first, relating to the authority of the general council, and with some modifications of the eighth, thirty-fifth, and thirty-sixth articles, were accepted by the convention of 1801 as a general statement of doctrine and are appended to the prayer book. Adherence to them as a creed, however, is not generally required either for confirmation or ordination, although this rests with the bishop.

The Episcopal Church expects of all its members loyalty to the doctrine, discipline, and worship of the one holy Catholic Apostolic Church, in all the essentials, but allows great liberty in nonessentials. There is no inclination to be rigid or to raise difficulties, but the fundamental principles of the church, based upon the Holy Scriptures as the ultimate rule of faith, have been maintained whenever a question has arisen demanding decision.

The clergy of the Protestant Episcopal Church, instead of signing the Thirty-nine Articles, as is done in the English Church, make the following declaration:

I do believe the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments to be the Word of God, and to contain all things necessary to salvation, and I do solemnly engage to conform to the doctrine, discipline, and worship of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America.

On this general basis, what are known as the Lambeth Articles were formulated in England in 1888 for the unity of Christendom, as follows:

(a) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as "containing all things necessary to salvation," and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith.

(b) The Apostles' Creed as the baptismal symbol, and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.

(c) The two sacraments ordained by Christ himself-baptism and the Supper of the Lord-ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of institution and of the elements ordained by Him.

(d) The historic episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the unity of His Church.

In the baptism of children either immersion or pouring is allowed. The child must be presented by sponsors, who may be the parents, who shall answer for the child, accepting the Apostles' Creed, with the implied promise that the child shall be trained to accept the pledges thus made.

For those who have not been baptized in infancy, reception into the church is by baptism, by whatever form may be preferred, and acceptance of the Apostles' Creed. For those who have been baptized, reception is by confirmation by the bishop, after instruction in the catechism of the church. Participation in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper is, according to the rules of the church, limited to those who have been confirmed, though the custom is growing of regarding all baptized persons as virtually members of the church, and as such permitted to partake, if they so desire.

POLITY.

The system of ecclesiastical government includes the parish or congregation, the diocese, the province, and the General Convention. A congregation, when organized, is "required, in its constitution or plan or articles of organization, to recognize and accede to the constitution, canons, doctrine, discipline, and worship of the church, and to agree to submit to and obey such directions as may be from time to time received from the bishop in charge, and council of advice."

Officers of the parish are the rector, who must be a priest; wardens, usually two in number, representing the body of the parish and usually having charge of records, collection of alms, and the repair of the church; and vestrymen, who are the trustees and hold the property for the corporation. The direction of spiritual affairs is exclusively in the hands of the rector. The number, mode of election, and term of office of wardens and vestrymen, with qualifications of voters, vary according to the state of diocesan law. The election of officers, including the rector, rests with the vestry as the elected representatives of the congregation.

A diocese includes not less than six parishes, and must have not fewer than six presbyters who have been for at least one year canonically resident within its bounds, regularly settled in a parish or congregation and qualified to vote for a bishop. The early dioceses were in general identical with the states, but with the growth of the church, necessitating the subdivision of the larger dioceses, and the erection of missionary districts, state lines have not always been observed, and many states have been divided into several dioceses, New York and Pennsylvania, for instance, each now containing five separate bishoprics.

The government of the diocese is vested in the bishop and the diocesan convention, the latter consisting of all the ordained clergy, and of at least one lay delegate from each parish or congregation. This convention meets annually, and election of delegates to it is governed by the specific canons of each diocese. A standing committee is appointed by the convention to be the ecclesiastical authority for all purposes declared by the General Convention. This committee elects a president and secretary from its own body, and meets in conformity to its own rules; its rights and duties, except as provided in the constitution and canons of the General Convention, are prescribed by the canons of the respective dioceses.

Sections of states and territories not organized into dioceses are established by the house of bishops and the General Convention as missionary districts. These districts may be elevated into dioceses or may be consolidated with other parts of dioceses as new dioceses.

The dioceses and missionary districts are assembled into eight provinces, to procure unity and cooperation in dealing with regional interests, especially in the fields of missions, religious education, social service, and judicial proceedings. Each province is governed by a synod consisting of the bishops and of four presbyters and four laymen, elected by each constituent diocese, and missionary district.

The General Convention, the highest ecclesiastical authority in the church, consists of two houses, the house of bishops and the house of deputies. The house of bishops includes every bishop having jurisdiction, every bishop coadjutor, and every. bishop who by reason of advanced age or bodily infirmity has resigned his jurisdiction. The house of deputies is composed of delegates elected from the dioceses, including for each diocese not more than four presbyters, canonically resident in the diocese, and not more than four laymen, communicants of the church, resident in the diocese. In addition to the delegates from the dioceses, each missionary district of the church within the boundaries of the United States is entitled to one clerical and one lay deputy with all the qualifications and rights of deputies except the right to vote when the vote is taken by orders. The two houses sit and deliberate separately. On any question, the vote of

a majority of the deputies present is sufficient in the house of deputies, unless some special canon requires more than a majority, or unless the clerical or lay delegation from any diocese demands that the vote be taken by orders. In such case the two orders vote separately, each diocese having one vote in the clerical order and one in the lay order, a majority in each order of all the dioceses being necessary to constitute a vote.

In the house of bishops the senior bishop in the order of consecration, having jurisdiction within the United States, is the presiding bishop, and next to him stands the bishop next in seniority by conse

cration.

The General Convention meets every third year on the first Wednesday in October, unless a different day be appointed by the preceding convention, and at the place designated by such convention, though the presiding bishop of the church has the power, in case of necessity, to change the place.

Three orders are recognized in the ministry, bishops, priests, and deacons. Deacons are ordained to assist the rector in the services and pastoral work, to baptize infants in the absence of the rector, and to preach as specially licensed by the bishop. A course of study and examination are required, and subscription to the declaration referred to above. A deacon after serving a year, provided he be at least 24 years of age, may be ordained to the priesthood and then receives authority to preach, to administer the sacraments, and in general to conduct the parish affairs. A bishop is a priest elected to that office by a diocesan convention and then approved by a majority of the standing committees of all the dioceses in the United States and a majority of the bishops having jurisdiction in the United States. tion in the United States. Missionary bishops are appointed in missionary districts by the house of bishops, subject to confirmation, during the session of the General Convention, by the house of deputies, and at other times by a majority of the standing committees of the dioceses. A bishop is consecrated by not less than 3 bishops. He is the administrative head and spiritual leader of his diocese. He presides over the diocesan convention, ordains deacons and priests, institutes rectors, licenses lay readers, and is required to visit every parish in his diocese at least once in three years. In case of the inability of a bishop to perform all the duties of his office, a bishop coadjutor may be elected in the same manner as the bishop, with the understanding that he shall have the right of succession to the bishopric. A suffragan bishop may be elected in the same way, when there is need of additional episcopal services. His authority is limited and he has not the right of succession.

The election of a rector is according to diocesan law, and notice of election is sent to the ecclesiastical authority of the diocese. On acceptance of the