Advancing civilization, signs of;
division of labour differen-
tiated organization, analysis of
thought and its expression, i.
377.

Affected English plurals termini
and fungi, and the genitive
and dative Christi and Christo;
introduction of Chinese cha-
racters into Japan by the
learned class, i. 174.
Age of a language marked by
phonetic decay as in the Old
Egyptian and Accadian; some
languages more affected than
others; examples of words
from the Basque, Yakute
Turkish and Chinese, i. 197-8.
Agglutinative languages and near

approach of many to the in-
flectional; our own both ag-
glutinative and isolating; the
French je vous donne an in-
stance of incorporation; Chi-
nese agglutinative, with much
that resembles inflection, while
the polysynthetic languages of
North America retain their
primæval character, i. 130;
no sharply defined line of
division of the various families
of speech; but species and
classes really exist, each with
its own type and characteris-
tics based upon its own con-
ception of the sentence and its
parts; the sentence the start-
ing-point of philology and key
to classification, ib. 131; their
differences reviewed; impor-
tant part played in history and
civilization by the races who

spoke the various dialects of
the Ural-Altaic; the oldest
monuments of Babylonia, the
cuneiform inscriptions have
shown that the wild hill tribes
of Media and Susiania, the
Elamites and Chaldeans all
spoke cognate languages, ii.
188-190; communities now
speaking allied dialects of the
Turanian appear to belong to
different races, ii. 190-191;
many agglutinative languages
are now more or less incorpo-
rating,as Zulu, Magyár, Mord-
vin, and Vogul; these forms
easily decomposed into an
amalgamation of the verb with
two personal pronouns, and
are almost analogous to the
French je vous donne and the
Italian portandvelo, ib. 209-
210; further incorporation af-
fecting all the forms of the
verb, and the intercalation of
a syllable in the Basque or Es-
cuara dialects, ib. 210-213; the
incorporation of the pronouns
found in Old Accadian, as in
Hungary and Northern Rus-
sia; the pronoun repeated
pleonastically in Semitic and
Greek, ib. 213-4.
Agreement of numerals and
words in common use a pre-
sumption that languages are
related, i. 153; pronouns a less

reliable criterion, ib. 153-4.
Alarodian an inflectional group,

difficult to distinguish mor-
phologically from Aryan, hav-
ing nothing genealogically in

dard" and " Missionary" of
Lepsius and Max Müller; pro-
posed alphabets of Ellis, Prince
L-L. Bonaparte and Sweet, i.
333.
Analogists and Anomalists, two

contending Alexandrine fac-
tions, i. 15; ib. 23.
Analogy, influence of; changed

the current forms of English,
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, i.
178-9; sometimes alters the
whole structural complexion of
a language, as in the Coptic,
ib. 180; influence on English
flection; power of changing
and extending meaning of
words; new object or idea
named from something fami-
liar; Kuriak, Russian, and
English examples, ib. 181;
sometimes wrong, as the term
whale-fishery and the name
guinea-pig; fair and legiti-
mate when applied to a new
object in relation to something
familiar, as the French canard,
Low-Latin canardus, German
kahn, a small "boat," then a
duck, which was frequently
used to decoy other birds,
ended in signifying a mere
empty cry to deceive, ib. 182.

Ancestor-worship seems to have
been first developed; lingered
on into the historic age of
Greece and Rome; the family
consisted of the dead and the
living; savages unable to dis-
tinguish between waking reali-
ties and dreams; led to infer
that man had two lives; visions
produced by voluntary or in-
voluntary fasts with the con-
ception of the continued exis-
tence of dead ancestors led to
the belief in spirits or ghosts;
the souls of ancestors some-
times regarded as friendly and
at others unfriendly, and sup-
posed to reside in animals and
material things as among the
Hurons and Zulus; the latter
see their ancestors in green
and brown snakes and offer
sacrifices to them; ancestral
worship passes insensibly into
the worship of animals and
trees; specially through fear
into the wide-spread adoration
of the serpent, ii. 290-291;
offerings spread to the manes
of the dead to avert evil; man's
daily needs the source of his
earliest adoration and prayer;
dread of evil spirits and use
of charms among the Red
Indians, ib. ii. 292.

Anticipations of a universal lan-

guage; signs of religion be-
coming a common bond of
sympathy and action among
all educated men; the mis-
chievous cry of nationalities
dying out; the perception of

language as the expression of
social life; clearing away old
prejudices and misconcep-
tions; tendency and move-
ments in progress for turning
the Babel of the primæval
world into the "Saturnia
regna" of the future, and the
realization of the views of
Leibnitz and Bishop Wilkins,
ii. 351-2.

Antiquity of man proved by the

science of language; age of
Egyptian and Assyrian civili-
zation; far earlier date of the
parent-language of the As-
syrian, Arabic, and other Se-
mitic dialects; time required
shown by the slight changes
in Arabic during the last four
thousand years, whilst the lan-
guage on the oldest Egyptian
monument is decayed and out-
worn, ii. 318-19; changes and
decay more rapid in Aryan
than in the Semitic idioms;
grammatical forms of Lithu-
anian in one or two instances
more primitive and archaic
than Sanskrit ; language of the
Rig-Veda and Homeric poems
originally the same; Aryan
dialects believed by Herr
Poesche to have been spoken
by the cave men at Cannstadt,
Neanderthal, Cromagnon, and
Gibraltar; vast period required
for the development and growth
of the parent Aryan from the
rude cries of barbarians; pho-
netic decay and word survivals,
ib. 319-321; Ural-Altaic family

bears a similar testimony to
an indefinitely high antiquity;
Accadian a decaying speech
three thousand years B.C.,
and implies a long period of
previous development; the
Mongols and Ugro-Tatars;
agreement of comparative phi-
lology, geology, pre-historic
archæology, and ethnology, in
proclaiming the enormously
long period of man's existence
on the earth; necessary to
explain the phænomena of
language, ib. 322-3; further
corroborated by the number
already ascertained of existing
separate families, and others
like the Basque and Etruscan,
of which scarcely a vestige
remains, ib. 323.

Apollonius Dyskolus and his son
Herodian, two famous Alex-
andrine grammarians; part of
the former's " "Syntax" still
extant; their labours ended
the controversy between the
Analogists and Anomalists;
Greek and Latin school gram-
mars inherited from this old
dispute, confound thinking and
speaking, and introduce formal
logic; result of comparison
with other languages, i. 23, 24.
Apothegm modern on Speech

and Silence, only a partial
truth; the prophet the har-
binger of a higher cult and
civilization than the seer;
estimate of the poet of the
Rig-Veda; haphazard etymo-
logy abandoned, but the pic-

ture retained of winged
words" inspired by Hermes
and the Muses; language the
bond of society, and the boun-
dary between man and the
brute, i. 1-2.

Apotheosis and its causes; first
due to worship of ancestors
after death, as in the Manes
of the Roman Church, but in
Chaldea and Egypt, kings
were deified while living, and
also the Roman Emperors for
State reasons; deification of
heroes still common among
the Bunjâras, who recently
made General Nicholson into
a new god; natural course of
a myth affected in this way
and also by the canonization
of Christian saints, ii. 297-8.
Arabic language, dialects, and
literature, ii. 173-178.
Aramaic a Semitic dialect, dis-
tinct from Assyrian and He-
brew in phonology and gram-
mar; once widely diffused
over Syria and Mesopotamia;
became the lingua franca of
trade from the eighth century
downwards, in time extirpating
Assyrio - Babylonian, Pheni-
cian, and Hebrew, just as it
was itself by Arabic afterwards,
ii. 171-2.
Arbitrary element small in ges-
ture-language compared with
spoken, consisting of a few
interjections and onomato-
pœic sounds, i. 95-6; the same
sounds used for different ideas;
no necessary connection be-

tween an idea and the word
that represents it; natural
sounds differently understood,
as in the attempts to imitate
the note of the nightingale in
various languages; first words
of children according to Psam-
mitikhus and the Papyrus
Ebers, i. 95-6; no reason in
the nature of things why the
word book should be applied
to the present volume in pre-
ference to koob, biblion, or
liber, ib. 97; essential that
language be an instrument for
the communication of our
thoughts to others; Aristotle
on thought and communica-
tion; the voiceless Yogi of
India, and the Bernardine
nuns of southern France, re-
semble the untrained deaf-
mute, ib. 97; the name Slav
assumed by our Aryan kins-
folk signifies" the speaker," in
opposition to the dumb and
unintelligible German-just as
the Assyrians are called a
people "of a stammering
tongue;" Man from the root
man, "to think;" derivatives
explained, ib. 97-8; language
the prerogative of man and the
bond of society; a social pro-
duct; springing up with the
first community, developing
with the increasing needs of
culture and civilization, ib. 98;
reason for calling the present
volume a book; new words come
into use for new objects and
ideas; unintentional changes;

new words and derivatives
must be accepted by society
before they form a part of
living speech; fate of proposed
new words, ib. 99-100.
Aristarchus the Homeric critic,

a strict Analogist, endeavoured
to remove all exceptions, and
to determine the genitive and
dative of Zeus, i. 15.
Aristophanes ridiculed the pe-
dantry of artificial rules, i. 10.
Aristotle on digestion, i. 8; op-
posed the theory of the natural
origin of speech; held that
words had no meaning in
themselves, and made no clear
distinction between words and
language; his ten categories
a mixture of grammar and
logic; his logical system em-
pirical and based solely on
Greek; only capable of cor-
rection by comparative philo-
logy; injury to logic by his
method compensated by the
additions to Greek grammar,
ib. 11-12; on the logos, ib.

122.

Armenia regarded by the Acca-

dians as the cradle of their
race; afterwards the home of
the Aryan Medes, i. 307.
Armenian literature; classic
period begins with the forma-
tion of the alphabet by Mesrop
in the fifth century of our era;
and the works of Moses of
Chorene, Lazar of Pharp,
Eznib of Kolb, and others;
leading phonetic feature of the
language the interchange of

hard and soft explosives, while
original becomes h, ii. 83.
Article definite, postfixed by the
Albanians, Bulgarians, Scan-
dinavians and Aramæans, i.
124; wanting in the majority of
languages and wherever found
can be traced back to the de-
monstrative pronoun and is
identical with it in German; has
the same function as the adjec-
tive or genitive, but not the
same position in the sentence;
it precedes the noun in English,
German, Hebrew, Arabic, and
Old Egyptian where the adjec-
tive follows it; in Scandinavian,
Wallach, Bulgarian, and Al-
banian placed after its noun;
reason of this irregularity; not
found in Ethiopic or Assyrian,
except in the latest period of
the latter; among the Aryan
dialects; Russian and other
Slavonic idioms (Bulgarian
excepted) have no article, the
Greek being very inadequately
represented by the relative
pronoun in the old Slavonic;
Sanskrit without, though the
demonstrative sa sometimes
takes its place as sa purusha,
like ille vir in Latin; neither
Finnic nor the Turkish-Tatar
have an article; Osmanli Tur-
kish occasionally follows the
Persian and expresses it by a
kezra (i) or hemza ('); Hun-
garian through German in-
fluence has turned the demon-
strative az into a genuine
article; the objective case,