ing carts. The other domesticated animals were oxen, sheep, goats, swine, and dogs; geese and bees were also kept, though beehives were not yet invented, and the honey was made into mead (Skt. madhu). But milk from the cow, sheep, and goat was the chief drink; and flesh was eaten when baked or roasted. To eat raw flesh. was the sign and characteristic of the barbarians (âmâdas, wμopayoí). Apples also were eaten, and black broth or hodgepodge (Skt. yûsha, Lat. jus, Greek twuós, Old Slav. jucha, Welsh uwd, from ju “to mix") formed a principal staple of food. Leather was tanned, and wool shorn and woven, for though linen was also known it is probable that dresses were mostly made of these materials. The hunter had the bear, wolf, wild duck, hare, otter, and beaver to pursue or trap; crabs and mussels were collected for food, and mice and vermin were already a household plague. Quails and ducks were further eaten, and the future was divined from the flight of birds, especially the falcon.

The Aryans, however, were mainly a pastoral people. Agriculture was still backward, though two cereals at least were grown-one represented by the Skt. sasya, Zend hahya, "corn," and Welsh haidd, "barley;"1 and the other by the Skt. yavas, Lithuanian javaí, Greek (ela, "spelt" (Old Irish eorna, "barley"). We may infer that the latter grain was the one most cultivated from the old Homeric epithet of the earth, gɛidwpos, “spelt-giving." A kind of rude plough was in use; hay was cut with the

1 Rhŷs: "Lectures on Welsh Philology,” p. 9 (1877). Dr. Whitley Stokes refers to Pliny N. H. xviii. 40: "Secale Taurini sub Alpibus (s)asiam vocant."

sickle (rava), and the grain was ground in the mill, and baked into bread. Straw was collected for winter employment, or for roofing the house; and a few garden herbs were grown. Salt, too, was used as an article of food; and the year was divided into the three seasons of spring, summer, and winter, while the moon received the title of "measurer," from the lunar month, by means of which time was reckoned. The dress of the Aryans shows that their country was far from being a warm one. It consisted of tunic, coat, collar, and sandals, made of sewn and woven wool or leather.

. Gold, silver, and bronze were the three metals known, though implements of stone still continued in use; and even after their arrival in Europe, we find the Teutonic Aryans naming the "dagger" seals, from the "stone" (Lat. saxum) of which it was made. Smelting and forging were carried on by a special class of smiths (takshanas), who occupied a high position, as in most primitive communities, and were even sometimes supposed to possess supernatural powers. The axe seems to have been the chief weapon, but the sword (Skt. asi, Lat. ensis) and bow were also employed; and wars appear to have been frequent.

Surgery and medicine were in their infancy,' charms being mainly relied upon as a means of cure; and two diseases at least had received names—the tetter (dardru) and consumption (skaya, skiti). Boats fitted for lakes and rivers had been invented; and the numerals on the decimal system were known, and named, at all events, up to one hundred. Baked, and not merely sun-dried, potCompare Latin medeor and Zend. madhaya.

1

tery was in daily use, consisting of vases, jars, pots, and cups, some of which had a pointed end to drive into the ground. Since several words exist denoting painting and motley colours, we may infer that this pottery was sometimes ornamented. Painting, however, was not the only art the germs of which had already shown themselves. Music, too, was already developed; and the Sanskrit tanti," a chord," and tata, "a stringed instrument," answer to the Greek Tovos, "a chord," and the Welsh tant, "a musical string," plural tannau, "a harp."

Even the names by which these old Aryans called one another were organized into a system. Fick has shown1 that every proper name was a compound of two words, neither more nor less. Thus we might have Deva-'sruta, "heard by God," in Sanskrit, Od-dwpos in Greek, Hariberht in Old German, Mils-drag in Servian, Cyn-fael in modern Welsh. The number of names, however, by which a child might be christened was limited; and many of them could be doubled by putting the first element last-Deva-'sruta for instance, being changed into 'Srutadeva, Θεόδωρος into Δωρόθεος. The second part of the name might be contracted so as to be hardly recognizable; thus in Greek 'Αντίγονος becomes Αντίγων, Κλεο-πάτης Κλωπας, and Baunack has proved that the Kretan 30s stands for OcBouhos. After the separation of the Aryan family, a good many shorter names were formed out of the old ones by omitting one of their two elements, and using the remaining element by itself, with or without a special termina

1 "Die griechischen Personennamen " (1874).

2 Curtius' "Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik," x. 1 (1877), pp. 83-88.

tion, as in the Sanskrit Datta from Deva-datta, or the Greek Νικίας, Νίκων from Νικόμαχος, Νικόστρατος, or the like. The Latin proper names fall outside the Aryan system, and are based on an entirely different method, which is probably due to Etruscan influence.1

Such, then, was in brief outline the civilization of the early Aryan community, and it will be seen that it was no mean one. Still following Fick, we may trace the Western Aryans after their departure from their old home, making their way along the northern shores of the Caspian and the inhospitable plains of Russia 2 to a region between the Baltic and the Black Sea, but westward of a line drawn from Königsberg to the Crimea, as is shown by the common possession of a name for the beech by the European dialects. Here, it would seem, they settled for a while, before again breaking up and turning now to the west to become Kelts or Teutons, now to the south to become Italians and Greeks. European dialects have certain marked features in common; such as the possession of e and 4, where the Asiatic dialects have a and r, and a present-stem formed by the suffix -ta. If we compare their vocabularies together we shall gather some idea of the progress that had been made since their separation from their eastern kindred. Family relationships have become more closely defined; there are names now for the grandfather, the sister-in

The

1 At any rate the Latin name-system is the same as the Etruscan, and we now know that certain proper names are of Etruscan origin, Aulus, Aulius, or Avilius, for example, being the Etruscan Avile or Avle, from avil, “life."

2 See Sayce: "Principles of Comparative Philology" (2nd edi tion), pp. 387-94.

law, and the sister's son, and terms of affection for old people, such as and (anus), and amâ (amita), "grandmother," but not, it would appear, for father and mother. An advance may be noted, too, in civil relations; the community now called tauta (Goth. thiuda) has become more compact, and a conception has been formed of the citizen or "civis," as opposed to the "stranger" or hostis. The members of the same community are necessarily friends, but it requires a special act to enter into friendly relations with the member of another community, and be to him a "host" (hospes, Old Slav. gos-podi). We find a new term for "law," lex, A-S. lagu, "what is laid down," and there are further words for "pound" and "steal." If the Greek had nothing corresponding to lex, hospes, hostis, civis, it is not that he lacked the ideas denoted by these words, or had separated earlier than the rest of his European brethren from the old stock, but because his intercourse with the east and his maritime pursuits kept the relations of civil life in a constant state of mobility, and displaced old terms by new ones, such as Barines, Γάναξ, Θεὸς, ἱερεύς. But it was their introduction to the sea that brought the European Aryans their largest increase of knowledge and experience. Not only were better boats built, and the sea itself named from its "barren" nature (mari), but sea animals-such as the lobster, the oyster, and the seal-were caught and named. New plants on the land, too, became known-the elm, the alder, the hazel, the oak, the Scotch fir, the vine, the willow, the beech, and the nettle, as well as new animals-the stag, the lynx, the hedgehog, and the tortoise, and new birds -the thrush and the crane. The duck, perhaps, was