vicissitudes through which that country has passed, from the days of Chedorlaomer to those of Ibrahim the conqueror, and though Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, Rome, and Turkey have trodden it under foot, it is "the glory of all lands." From our earliest years we are familiar with the cedars of Lebanon, the beauty of Carmel, the dews of Hermon, the rose of Sharon, and the clusters of Eshcol. The charm of household words belongs to the lake of Tiberias, where lingered so often the "blessed feet," to the Jordan, on which the great miracle was done at the invasion, and by the banks of which occurred a greater wonder when the Holy One was baptized,-to the sea so salt and so solitary as to be called the Dead Sea,-as also to the sultry desert, with its strange rocks and sweeps of sand on which fell the daily rain of manna,—and to the hoary, rugged mountain that quaked and flamed when Jehovah came down and spoke in thunder the words of the ten commandments. Throngs of pilgrims, under these fascinations, have gone to Palestine in all centuries, and many of them have published books on their return. These literary travellers began with the pilgrim of Bordeaux, who visited Palestine about A. D. 333; and he has had crowds of successors in every century. Not to speak of the geographical works of Reland, Bochart, Raumer, Mannert, Ritter, Munk, Schwartz, and Arnaud, we may refer on this subject to Maundrell, Shaw, Robinson, Stanley, Niebuhr, Burckhardt, Olin, Seetzen, Irby and Mangles, Lord Lindsay, Lamartine, Laborde, Schubert, Wilson, Thomson, Porter, Bonar, Van de Velde, De Sauley, Lynch, Sepp, Osborn, Dixon, and the papers of Mr. Groves in "Smith's Dictionary;" and to Tobler, Barclay, Pierotti, Williams, Thrupp, Lewin, Bartlett, Krafft, Unruh, Rosen, De Vogüé, and Fergusson, who have written specially about Jerusalem. The Palestine Exploration Society is working out its researches with great skill and astonishing success; Tristram's admirable volume has given us new and welcome information on the Natural History of the Holy Land; and a party of engineers are also leaving to survey the wilderness of Sinai. The rational study of language by the aid of comparative grammar has now superseded the eccentric etymologies of former days. The literary history and structure of the various books of Scripture may be freely treated, without the fetter of mere dogma and tradition. Materials are thus rapidly accumulating which are not to be confined to the libraries of the learned, but dispensed to the Christian world. There is now a thirst for substantial knowledge about the history of the Scriptures as well as their theological contents. Christians are desirous of the "strong meat which belongs to them that are of full age." The First Edition had three columns in the page, but this has only two; still, in consequence of the smallness of the type, this volume contains a very large quantity of matter-as much as would fill several octavos printed in the usual form. The Maps, originally constructed with characteristic accuracy and taste by Messrs. W. & A. K. Johnston of Edinburgh, have been revised and corrected by them for this edition. The Woodcuts have been taken from the most authentic sources; and those of them relating to the antiquities of Egypt have been drawn by Mr. Bonomi, who has acquired high celebrity in this walk of art. The cuts have been inserted, not for embellishment, but illustration. The value of such pictorial comments, taken from the paintings and sculptures still found on the tombs, temples, and palaces in the great valley of the Nile, and among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, is now universally and gratefully recognized. The labours and discoveries of Young, Champollion, Rosellini, Wilkinson, Lepsius, Osburn, Bunsen, Gliddon, Osborn, Birch, and Brugsch; and of Layard, Kerr Porter, Loftus, the Rawlinsons, Hincks, Oppert, and Norris, have been of singular utility on many points for the fuller understanding and confirmation of the sacred records. In conclusion, the Work is commended to the blessing of Him by whose inspiration all Scripture has been given, and by the influences of whose Spirit we are enabled to “know the things that are freely given us of God." 6 THORNVILLE TERRACE, HILLHEAD, GLASGOW, October, 1968. BIBLICAL CYCLOPÆDIA. AAR AARON The word means "enlightened," if it be of Hebrew origin, and it is the same with the name Harûn, so common in the East. Aaron (Exod. vi. 20), the first high priest of the Jews, was the son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi. He was three years older than his brother Moses, and being a more ready and fluent speaker, he was appointed by the Lord to assist Moses in guiding and controlling the Israelites in their journey from Egypt to Canaan. The important but subordinate relation which Aaron sustained was thus expressed by the Lord to Moses,-"He shall be thy spokesman unto the people. He shall be to thee instead of a mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God" (Exod. iv. 16). "I have made thee a God to Pharaoh; and Aaron, thy brother, shall be thy prophet" (Exod. vii. 1). Aaron married Elisheba, the daughter of Amminadab, and had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The two former were punished with death for a heinous sin, and the priesthood remained in the two survivors. (See ABIHU.) As most of the important events in the life of Aaron are intimately connected with his brother's history, they will be reserved for that article. (See MOSES.) Those in which Aaron was only or principally concerned, are briefly the following: Aaron, even before the emancipation, seems to have exercised no little influence among the people. Moses, after forty years' absence, was introduced by him to the Hebrew chiefs, and with his advice and assistance, the plan of future co-operation seems to have been adopted. At an early period after the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt, Aaron and his sons were set apart by God's direction, and with the most solemn ceremonies, to minister in the priest's office, which Aaron continued to fill until his death. Before his consecration, and while Moses was on the mount, receiving the law from God, the people became impatient at the prolonged absence of their leader, and besought Aaron to make them idol-gods. He thereupon commanded them to break off the golden earrings of their wives and children; which being collected and brought to him, he made out of AAR them an idol in the shape of a calf, like one of the idols of Egypt. Before this image the people danced and shouted, saying, "These be thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt.' This act, and the aggravating circumstances connected with it (Exod. xxxii. 25), involved Aaron in great guilt. No sufficient apology can be made for his vacillation at this crisis. His toleration of idol-worship may be ascribed, however, not to his approval of it, but to his want of that decision and force of character which belonged to his younger brother; or perhaps he may have found some means of self-vindication in the thought that the calf was only a symbolic representation of the Deity, and not his rival; for when he had built an altar before it, his proclamation as to its worship was announced in these words, "To-morrow is a feast to Jehovah." His mind had not been elevated to the purer conceptions of the spirituality of the Godhead with which Moses had been favoured, and the taint of Egyptian superstition had not been thoroughly eradicated. The calf or young bullock, formed and consecrated on this occasion, was evidently an intended imitation of the worship of the country which the Hebrew tribes had so recently left-was designed to represent the idol Apis or Mnevis, the principal object of Egyptian homage. The kind of worship which the Hebrews paid to the golden calf-for it is said of them, "They sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play"is precisely the mode of celebration which Herodotus describes as being practised in Egypt at the feast of Apis. "Some of the women play on castanets, and the men on the flute; all indulge in feasting; when Apis appears, all the Egyptians manifest their joy by feasting" (Herodotus ii. 60; iii. 27). (See CALF.) Aaron's own apology to his indignant brother, when challenged by him on his unexpected return to the camp, was the perversity and headstrong determination of the people. They suffered severely for their folly: three thousand were slain. At a later period, Aaron, with his sister Miriam, jealous of the higher position and influence of their brother, attempted to lower his reputation by taunting him as to his marriage with a foreigner. Miriam was struck with leprosy; but, upon confession of his sin, soms, and yielded almonds." This wonderful Aaron was pardoned. Bronzes of the god Apis. Korah and others were offended with Moses | and Aaron, and charged them with taking upon themselves authority which belonged as much to others as to them. The conspirators were persons of rank and influence, and the feeling of dissatisfaction and insubordination seems to have spread to some extent among the people. Moses expostulated with them, and especially with Korah; but his remonstrance was all in vain, and the next day the rebel and his companions were suddenly destroyed. (See KORAH.) Immediately after this fearful exhibition of the anger of God, and while we should suppose the terror of such judgments might still possess their minds, the people of Israel renewed their murmurings against Moses and Aaron (Num. xvi. 41). A dreadful plague having appeared suddenly in the midst of them, which threatened the tribes with utter and immediate destruction, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took a censer with incense, and ran quickly into the midst of the congregation, and stood between the living and the dead, until he had made an atonement for them, and the "plague was stayed" (Num. xvi. 44-50). A signal attestation was now granted to Aaron's official authority in the following manner:-Twelve rods or branches of the almond tree were taken, one for the head of each house, or tribe, of Israel; and upon the rod of the tribe of Levi was written the name of Aaron. The rods were laid together in a particular place in the tabernacle; and the next day, when Moses went into the tabernacle, the rod which had Aaron's name upon it was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blos miracle was made known to the people by an exhibition of the rod; but it was immediately taken back into the tabernacle, to be kept there for ever, "for a token against the rebels" (or the children of rebellion) (Num. xvii. 10). Some infer from this sacred deposition of the rod, that it retained afterwards its supernatural outgrowth of foliage, blossoms, and fruit. When the supply of water was miraculously furnished in the desert of Zin, Aaron neglected to acknowledge the power of God, and for this was denied the privilege of entering into the promised land. In the fortieth year after he had left Egypt, he was commanded to go up with Moses his brother, and Eleazar his son, into mount Hor, in sight of all the congregation, that he might die there (Num. xx. 28). The place of Aaron's death is called Mosera, in Deut. x. 6; but the same spot is denoted in both passages. (See HOR.) The circumstances of Aaron's death are peculiarly interesting and impressive. On his way to the mount, his official robes were transferred to his son and successor in the priesthood, and he died on the top of the mount, aged one hundred and twenty-three years (Num. xxxiii. 39). When Moses and Eleazar came down, and the people saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for him thirty days, even all the house of Israel" (Num. xx. 29). 66 Aaron is called "the saint of the Lord" (Ps. cvi. 16). The idea that he assisted Moses in writing parts of the Pentateuch-an idea based on supposed differences of style-is both fanciful and unnecessary. With all the faults and defects of Aaron's character, we cannot but admire his ardent patriotism and warm endeavours to promote the interests of his people, as well as his general deference to the authority of Moses, and his hearty labours in carrying out his measures, without jealousy or ostentation. AARONITES (1 Chr. xii. 27)-Levites of the family of Aaron: the priests who served the sanctuary. Eleazar, Aaron's son, was their chief (Num. iv. 16). AB-the fifth month of the sacred, and the eleventh of the civil year among the Jews. The name seems not to have been used till after the return from Babylon. It began, according to some, with the new moon of July, and according to others, with the new moon of August. It was a black month in the Jewish calendar. On its first day a fast was observed for the death of Aaron, and on its ninth another was held in memory of the divine edict which excluded so many that came out of Egypt from entering the promised land, and in memory, at the same time, of the overthrow of the first and second temple. (See MONTH.) ABADDON (Rev. ix. 11)-the Hebrew name for the angel of the bottomless pit, and answering to the Greek name Apollyon. They both signify the destroyer. ABANA (2 Ki. v. 12)-a river of Syria, near Damascus, supposed to be the Barada, or Chrysorrhoas. It rises in the Antilibanus, at a spot about 1,149 feet above the city, and twenty-three miles distant from it. Pharpar, the other stream, is now supposed to be the Awaj, which rises on mount Hermon, but does not come nearer Damascus than seven miles. The Abana, flowing into Damascus, supplies its numerous baths and cisterns; while its other branches water and fertilize the rural districts in the vicinity. The river continues its course till it empties itself into a small marshy lake, fifteen or twenty miles distant from the city. Hananiah (or Shadrach), and Mishael (or Meshach). After Daniel's promotion to be ruler over the whole province of Babylon, his three companions were, at his request, elevated to places of trust. Nebuchadnezzar the king saw fit to make a golden image, the worship of which was to be a test of loyalty; for at its dedication with great pomp, he commanded that, at a certain signal, the people of all nations and languages should fall down and worship the image, and that those who refused should be cast into the midst of a burning furnace. In this act of idolatry, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego would not unite, though commanded by the king himself. They replied that they were not anxious to answer the king in this matter, as the God whom they loved and served was able to deliver them, to whatever Abana and Pharpar supplied abundance of extremity they might be reduced. The king water, and rendered the country around Da- was filled with fury, and commanded the furmascus, though on the edge of a desert, one of nace to be heated sevenfold hotter than was the most beautiful and fertile spots in the usual; and "most mighty men were emworld; while the streams of Judea or Israel,ployed to bind them, and cast them into the with the exception of the Jordan, are nearly flames. Perhaps the phrase, "most mighty dry the greater part of the year, and, running men," used here, means the chief officers of the in deep and rocky channels, give but partial army, who were selected to make the punishfertility to the land through which they flow. ment more imposing and exemplary. With This striking fact may well account for the all their garments on, they were cast into the question of Naaman-"Are not Abana and furnace; and so intense was the heat that Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the executioners themselves were destroyed the waters of Israel?" (Porter's Five Years in by it. The king was present to witness the Damascus. London, 1855.) (See DAMASCUS.) execution of the sentence; and, though the ABARIM-passages; used always with the three men at first fell down bound in the midst definite article (Deut. xxxii. 49)-a general of the flames, yet when he looked, expecting name given to a mountainous ridge, running to see them destroyed, he beheld them loosed from north to south, east of Jordan and on the from their bonds, walking unhurt in the midst northern border of Moab. Nebo was one of of the fire, and a fourth person with them, the conspicuous mountains in the chain, or on whose form was like the son of God." This the portion of it called Pisgah. The modern was the king's language; and whatever he mount Dhana is supposed to be a part of might have intended by the term, "Son of Abarim. Ije-abarim (Num. xxi. 11), meaning God," the fourth person, to whom he refers, heaps of Abarim," is another name for the was probably an angel of God, sent for this same chain, or some portion of it. purpose, as he was afterwards sent to shut the mouths of lions for the protection of his servant Daniel; or it might have been the eternal and uncreated Son of God, appearing to protect and deliver his faithful servants in the time of their calamity (Matt. xxviii. 20). ABBA (Rom. viii. 15). Abba, the emphatic Chaldee form of the Hebrew word ab, signifying father. The title, abba, was not allowed to be used by servants or slaves when addressing the head of the family-a circumstance which gives much force to the word in the passage Upon the call of the king from the mouth of cited. The full meaning of this term cannot be the furnace, these three servants of the most expressed in our language. It implies a high high God came forth, in the presence of the degree of love, confidence, and submission, as princes and rulers of the country; and so comwell as a most endeared and intimate connec-pletely had they been protected by the mighty tion and fellowship (Mark xiv. 36; Gal. iv. 6), The word ab (meaning father) is mentioned one of the first and simplest words of infancy, as its sound is produced by the mere shutting of the lips (Isa. viii. 4). ABEDNEGO-servant of Nego; perhaps another form of Nebo (Dan. i. 7)—the Chaldee name given by an officer of the king of Babylon to Azariah, one of the four youths of Judah taken captive from Jerusalem, and ordered by the king to be trained for his particular service. (See DANIEL.) It was customary for masters to give new names to their servants or captives. The other three were, Daniel (or Belteshazzar), power in which they trusted, that not a hair was singed, the colour of their coats was not changed, nor was there even the smell of fire upon them. The monarch, astonished at this evident interposition of the Almighty in their behalf, forthwith passed a decree, threatening to punish in the severest manner any one who should speak against the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego; "because (said he) there is no other god that can deliver after this sort;" and the men were restored to their places in the province, (Dan. iii.) (See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.) ABEL-vanity (Gen. iv. 2)-was the second |